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Organization of translation activities. Theoretical and applied support of translation activities

Features of bilingual communication

In the process of interlingual communication, the basic patterns of using language as a means of communication are preserved. However, its bilingual nature predetermines the existence of a number of distinctive features. The translator deals with the parallel use of two languages, two texts in different languages, two different cultures. The implementation of communication in these conditions is a more difficult task for the following reasons. First of all, the author of the original text does not intend his message for the Translation Text Receptor, and therefore the condition for successful communication - targeting the recipient - is not satisfied by simply reproducing the features of the original, but must be provided specifically when creating the translation text. Two texts involved in the process of interlingual communication are created in different situations, the communicants using these texts may have different background knowledge, in these texts the ratio of explicit and implicit may not be the same.

As already mentioned, the belonging of texts to two different language and speech systems excludes their formal or meaningful identity. Therefore, communication in this case is carried out on the basis of only a partial, relative correspondence of such texts, which must satisfy the principle of communicative sufficiency, that is, ensure the success of communication.

The translator must create the conditions for such success by choosing between possible options translation. Such a choice requires taking into account the relative importance of losses, highlighting the most important (dominant) features of the original, which must be necessarily reproduced in translation, observing the principle of "the least evil", which allows to ensure the maximum possible, optimal or sufficient degree of communication.

The specificity of interlingual communication makes it necessary that the translator, in addition to linguistic, communicative and speech competence for communication in each of the languages, also has a special translation competence. The formation of such competence is the most important task of teaching translation.

The organization of the training of translators is largely determined by the fact that the translator has to perform very different tasks. different types activities that provide different forms of interlingual communication. Teaching different types of translation requires special methodological techniques. A professional translator may specialize in one or more types of translation.

The diversity of translation activities is associated not only with different types of translation. Translation can be performed under different conditions, within more or less rigid time frames, with a variety of purposes, for different customers. The text of the translation may be intended for general acquaintance with the original, for obtaining some information, or for publication as a full-fledged replacement for the original. In all these cases, the requirements for translation are different, and the translator must be prepared to work in a variety of conditions.

The nature of the translator's work is also influenced by his official status. He can work in the state of any bureau or department, alone or as part of a group of translators, he can act as a "free artist", performing translations under agreements and contracts, he can act as a translation editor, consultant or leader of a "team" of translators, etc. .d.

And, finally, a translator can be entrusted with many types of “near translation” activities: negotiating, business correspondence, receiving and accompanying delegations, compiling reviews, minutes of conversations and other documentation, language and country studies consultations, etc.

The specificity of interlingual communication and the diverse forms of translation activity make it necessary for the translator to create a kind of translation competence, which is characterized by the following distinctive features.

Language competence Interpreter's language includes all aspects of language proficiency that are characteristic of any native speaker, but also implies a number of specific features. Just like any participant in linguistic communication, the translator keeps in his memory knowledge about the system, norm and usage of the language, about its vocabulary and grammatical structure, about the rules for using language units to construct speech utterances, about the predominant use

certain sets of language units in various areas of communication, about territorial, social and professional differences in the use of such units, about the influence on the choice and nature of the use of language units of the communication environment and the relationship of communication participants, their role functions. All this knowledge and the corresponding psycho-physiological abilities and speech-thinking mechanisms are necessary for understanding the original text and creating the translation text.

At the same time, the specificity of the translator's speech activity imposes on his linguistic competence Additional requirements, which are due not only to the fact that the translator must have sufficient linguistic competence in the field of not one, but two languages. First of all, it should be noted that, unlike "normal" native speakers, the nature and boundaries of the translator's linguistic competence are largely imposed from outside. An ordinary communicant has a certain level of language proficiency, which he uses at his own discretion, independently choosing means of expression from his idiolect, in accordance with the purpose and situation of communication, in the determination of which he is directly involved. At the same time, he can manage with a limited set of linguistic means, not participating in acts of communication that require a wider or more effective use of language that exceeds his capabilities. For the translator, the scope and goals of communication, the choice and method of using language means are largely determined by the original and do not depend on his own desire. Therefore, the translator must have comprehensive linguistic competence, both receptively and productively, in both languages involved in the translation process. Of course, the linguistic competence of each translator has its limits, but the wider these limits, the higher his general professional competence.

From the potentially unlimited requirements for the language competence of a translator, there is a need to be able to quickly expand and replenish their language knowledge, especially in comparative terms. A translator is a person in constant search, constantly asking himself, how to say it in another language, and what does this word mean, and what is said in this language in this situation? This is a person who, listening and reading, hears and sees not only what is said, but also as it is said, who does not part with dictionaries, does not miss the opportunity to learn something new about the language, to replenish his file cabinet.

For the same reason, the linguistic competence of a translator is particularly flexible and plastic, the ability to quickly rebuild, translate from speech perception to speech production, from one language to another, from one style and register to another, change the type of vocabulary used and the syntactic pattern of his speech.

Successful exchange of speech works in the process of communication presupposes that the communicants have text-forming competence, the ability to create texts. different type in accordance with the rules and stereotypes accepted in a given language community. The professional competence of a translator includes knowledge of the correlation of such rules in two languages and the ability to construct texts of various types. The text-forming competence of the translator also includes knowledge of the differences in the general strategy of constructing a text in two languages, both in relation to the nature of the semantic connection - the coherence of the text (for example, the large role of implicitness in English text in comparison with Russian), and in ways of ensuring formal cohesion - cohesion (for example, the wider use of logical connectives in Russian text compared to English).

An important place in the professional competence of a translator is occupied by his communicative competence. A billing translator has communicative competence in two languages, without which it is impossible to master these languages. At the same time, the professional competence of a translator implies not only the ability to interpret the meaning of statements and texts. The translator's communicative competence includes the ability to project the inferential capabilities of translation receptors onto statements in the original text. The translator is constantly forced to decide whether the reproduction of the linguistic content of the original statement in the translation can serve as a sufficient basis for the correct conclusion about the global meaning, given the differences in background knowledge and in the communication environment of the translation receptors. If necessary, the translator corrects the ratio of the linguistic content and the derived meaning by introducing the missing background information into the statement itself or reporting it in notes and footnotes. Thus, unlike ordinary communicators, the communicative competence of an interpreter is comparatively dynamic in nature. This is not only the ability to infer meaning, but also the ability to compare the inferential abilities of representatives of two language

collectives and draw conclusions about the need to change the linguistic content of the statement in translation in order to provide the necessary conclusions about its full meaning.

The professional competence of a translator necessarily includes some personal characteristics, without which he will not be able to successfully perform his professional functions. Translation is complex view mental activity, the implementation of which requires a special mental organization, its greater plasticity and flexibility, the ability to quickly switch attention, move from one language to another, from one culture to another, from one communicative situation to another. The translator needs the ability to concentrate, mobilize the resources of his memory, all his intellectual and emotional potentials.

The translator has to deal with a wide variety of topics, translate texts from various areas knowledge, often of a highly specialized nature. It requires a breadth of interests, comprehensive erudition, high erudition. This must be a man of great culture and encyclopedic knowledge. It is even more important that the translator be able to constantly enrich his knowledge, find and perceive new information, use various reference books and other sources of information productively. Translators are well aware of the paramount role of general education, realizing that no knowledge can be superfluous in their profession.

Of particular note is the moral and ethical component of the translator's professional competence. He bears full responsibility for the quality of his work, for the moral and material damage that may result from his dishonesty. Those who use its services rely on its objectivity and reliability. Without access to the original, they take on faith the equivalence of the translation of the original established by the translator. Translation activity, like no other, is completely based on the trust of translation receptors in the results of the translator's work. An interpreter can justify this trust only due to his great composure, efficiency and exclusion of any elements of a frivolous, careless attitude to business.

The interpreter operates in a variety of communication environments. He can deal with secret political or commercial documents, be present at closed negotiations at the highest

access to intimate details privacy of many people. Modesty, tact, ability to hold on, keep a secret - obligatory part professional conduct of the translator. The translator's unwritten moral code, like the Hippocratic oath, includes the rule: "Do no harm!"

The formation of the professional competence of a translator involves the development of a special type of personality, corresponding to the moral and ethical characteristics of this profession.

And finally, the professional competence of a translator includes technical competence- specific knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to perform this type of activity. Translation knowledge provides an understanding of the essence and tasks of translation activity, familiarity with the main provisions of the theory of translation, with options for a translation strategy and translation techniques. The translator's strategy covers three groups of general principles for the implementation of the translation process: some initial postulates, the choice of a general course of action that will guide the translator in making specific decisions, and the choice of the nature and sequence of actions in the translation process. The initial postulates of the translation strategy are largely determined by the intermediary role of the translator, the secondary nature of his work. The activity of a translator only makes sense when it justifies the hopes of the participants in interlingual communication. Therefore, the basis of the general strategy of the translator is the desire to understand the translated text as fully as possible and find the most accurate correspondence to it in the TL. The most important strategic principle of an interpreter is a critical attitude to one's actions. If the original seems to him contradictory, incomprehensible, or completely devoid of meaning, then the reason for this may not be an oversight of its author, but insufficient knowledge of the translator. The translator's strategy is based on the understanding that any part of the text can present obvious or hidden translation problems, which results in respect for the original, inadmissibility of thoughtless or superficial solutions. At the same time, among such problems there are typical, often encountered and having more or less well-known, standard solutions, and there are unique, occasional ones that require changes in known methods or the search for completely new ones for their solution. The main principle of the translator's strategy is maximum efforts for

walking is the best option. The translator's strategy in solving specific problems primarily depends on the definition of the purpose of the translation and the conditions for its implementation. Based on these factors, taking into account the type of translated text, the dominant of the translation process is determined - the main thing that the translator will strive for. In accordance with the decision made, the methods of transmitting the original message are also selected. The translator's strategy can also be influenced to a certain extent by the purely practical conditions of his work: tight deadlines, the ability to use a typewriter, voice recorder, computer, etc.

The choice of the nature and sequence of actions in the process of translation depends on the mental warehouse, knowledge and experience of the translator, but some features of the strategic approach are universal. This is, first of all, the rule that understanding precedes translation, although in the process of translation the translator can repeatedly return to the original, deepening his understanding and correcting the translation accordingly. General rule also is the selection of successive segments in the text, when the translator starts translating the next segment only after he has translated the previous one. Due to the linear nature of the process of understanding and speech production, it is impossible to immediately translate a sufficiently large text, and the segment of the original that makes up the “translation step” is usually equal to one or two statements.

Many elements of a translation strategy are variable and are used to varying degrees by individual translators in different settings. These include: preliminary acquaintance with the subject of the original message by studying parallel texts in TL, reference books and encyclopedias; familiarization with the entire text of the original before the translation; compiling a list of terms and unfamiliar words; the use of a draft (literal) translation or the immediate choice of the final version of the translation; reading aloud segments of the translation; the predominance of pre-translation analysis or post-translation editing, etc.

A decisive role in the professional technique of an interpreter is played by the possession of special skills. Not all skills that ensure a successful translation process can be identified and described. Some of them are complex and difficult to analyze. Among the translation skills, the most important are the following:

1. Ability to perform parallel actions in two languages, switch from one language to another. This skill partially arises spontaneously with the development of bilingualism, but it must be brought to a professional level, which is achieved by studying translation correspondences and translation techniques, and most importantly, through constant bilingual actions, the implementation of translations of both entire texts and their fragments.

2. The ability to understand the text in translation. Although at the first stage of the translation process the translator acts as the Receptor of the original, his understanding of the text differs from the usual depth and finality. Ordinary Receptors are often content with a very rough understanding of the text. Having met, for example, a message that a certain person is a “bright personality” or that he made a “bright speech”, a Russian person may not think about the exact meaning of the word “bright”. It is clear to him that it conveys a very positive assessment and does not need to be specified. However, when translating into English, the translator will have to make the final choice between possible interpretations, since he must decide which English words(brilliant, impressive, graphic, moving, extraordinary) can be used as a match. The translator's understanding of the original text is to a certain extent determined by the peculiarities of the target language. So, when analyzing the value English verb in the past tense, the translator will be forced to look for additional information in the original, which will allow him to make a choice between the perfect and imperfect form in the translation. (Compare, for example; When in Paris, I went to the Opera).

3. Performing parallel actions in two languages in the process of translation implies the ability to move in statements in each of the languages from the surface structure to the deep one and vice versa. If it is impossible to use a similar surface structure in the TL, the translator looks for the deep structure of the statement in the FL, trying to answer the question: what does this phrase essentially mean? What did the author want to say? The translator then solves the following problem; in what ways (in other words, what surface structures) can this deep meaning be

expressed in PI? This is also connected with the ability to build synonymous surface structures and synonymous words in the TL and make a choice between them.

4. Of particular importance for an interpreter is a special skill that can be described as the ability to "depart without moving away." If it is impossible to apply a direct correspondence, the translator is forced to deviate from the original, but at the same time he strives to stay as close as possible to the original meaning. This strategy of "least loss" is achieved primarily by varying the language form, as well as by using the closest synonyms.

5. Translation competence includes the ability to choose and correctly use translation techniques and overcome difficulties associated with the lexical, phraseological, grammatical and stylistic features of the source language. This skill is based on the description of these techniques and the difficulties of translation obtained within the framework of the corresponding particular theory of translation.

6. The main translation skills are brought together in the ability to analyze the original text, identify standard and non-standard translation problems and choose the ways to solve them that are most appropriate for each specific act of translation. Related to this is the ability to edit one's own and other people's translations, to detect and eliminate semantic and stylistic errors, to criticize and evaluate the proposed options in a convincing manner.

Actually, translation skills are realized on the basis of the whole complex of speech skills that make up the knowledge of the languages involved in the translation process. Some skills can be turned into semi-automatic or automatic skills and used intuitively by translators. All components of a translator's professional competence are developed in the process of learning to translate or in the course of practical translation activities.

The concept of translation competence is of great theoretical and practical interest. It needs further research to clarify its constituent factors and ways of its formation and development.

The organization of the training of translators is largely determined by the fact that the translator has to perform very diverse activities that provide different forms of interlingual communication. Teaching different types of translation requires special methodological techniques. A professional translator may specialize in one or more types of translation.

At the same time, the specificity of the translator's speech activity imposes additional requirements on his linguistic competence, which are due not only to the fact that the translator must have sufficient linguistic competence in the field of not one, but two languages. First of all, it should be noted that, unlike "normal" native speakers, the nature and boundaries of the translator's linguistic competence are largely imposed from outside. An ordinary communicant has a certain level of language proficiency, which he uses at his own discretion, independently choosing means of expression from his idiolect, in accordance with the purpose and situation of communication, in the determination of which he is directly involved. At the same time, he can manage with a limited set of linguistic means, not participating in acts of communication that require a wider or more effective use of language that exceeds his capabilities. For the translator, the scope and goals of communication, the choice and method of using language means are largely determined by the original and do not depend on his own desire. Therefore, the translator must have comprehensive linguistic competence, both receptively and productively, in both languages involved in the translation process. Of course, the linguistic competence of each translator has its limits, but the wider these limits, the higher his general professional competence.

Successful exchange of speech works in the process of communication presupposes that the communicants have text-forming competence, the ability to create texts of various types in accordance with the rules and stereotypes accepted in a given language community. The professional competence of a translator includes knowledge of the correlation of such rules in two languages and the ability to construct texts of various types. The text-forming competence of the translator also includes knowledge of differences in the general strategy of constructing a text in two languages, both in terms of the nature of semantic coherence - text coherence (for example, the greater role of implicitness in an English text compared to Russian), and in ways to ensure formal cohesion - cohesion ( for example, the wider use of logical connectives in Russian text compared to English).

collectives and draw conclusions about the need to change the linguistic content of the statement in translation in order to provide the necessary conclusions about its full meaning.

The professional competence of a translator necessarily includes some personal characteristics, without which he will not be able to successfully perform his professional functions. Translation is a complex type of mental activity, the implementation of which requires a special mental organization, its great plasticity and flexibility, the ability to quickly switch attention, move from one language to another, from one culture to another, from one communicative situation to another. The translator needs the ability to concentrate, mobilize the resources of his memory, all his intellectual and emotional potentials.

The translator has to deal with a wide variety of topics, translate texts from various fields of knowledge, often of a very special nature. It requires a breadth of interests, comprehensive erudition, high erudition. This must be a man of great culture and encyclopedic knowledge. It is even more important that the translator be able to constantly enrich his knowledge, find and perceive new information, use various reference books and other sources of information productively. Translators are well aware of the paramount role of general education, realizing that no knowledge can be superfluous in their profession.

The interpreter operates in a variety of communication environments. He can deal with secret political or commercial documents, be present at closed negotiations at the highest

access to the intimate details of the private lives of many people. Modesty, tact, the ability to hold on, to keep a secret are an indispensable part of the professional behavior of an interpreter. The translator's unwritten moral code, like the Hippocratic oath, includes the rule: "Do no harm!"

The formation of the professional competence of a translator involves the development of a special type of personality, corresponding to the moral and ethical characteristics of this profession.

The choice of the nature and sequence of actions in the process of translation depends on the mental warehouse, knowledge and experience of the translator, but some features of the strategic approach are universal. This is, first of all, the rule that understanding precedes translation, although in the process of translation the translator can repeatedly return to the original, deepening his understanding and correcting the translation accordingly. The general rule is also the selection of successive segments in the text, when the translator starts translating the next segment only after he has translated the previous one. Due to the linear nature of the process of understanding and speech production, it is impossible to immediately translate a sufficiently large text, and the segment of the original that makes up the “translation step” is usually equal to one or two statements.

2. The ability to understand the text in translation. Although at the first stage of the translation process the translator acts as the Receptor of the original, his understanding of the text differs from the usual depth and finality. Ordinary Receptors are often content with a very rough understanding of the text. Having met, for example, a message that a certain person is a “bright personality” or that he made a “bright speech”, a Russian person may not think about the exact meaning of the word “bright”. It is clear to him that it conveys a very positive assessment and does not need to be specified. However, when translating into English, the translator will have to make the final choice between possible interpretations, since he must decide which of the English words (brilliant, impressive, graphic, moving, extraordinary) can be used as a match. The translator's understanding of the original text is to a certain extent determined by the peculiarities of the target language. So, when analyzing the meaning of an English verb in the past tense, the translator will be forced to look for additional information in the original that will allow him to make a choice between the perfect and imperfect aspect in the translation. (Compare, for example; When in Paris, I went to the Opera).

expressed in PI? This is also connected with the ability to build synonymous surface structures and synonymous words in the TL and make a choice between them.

The concept of translation competence is of great theoretical and practical interest. It needs further research to clarify its constituent factors and ways of its formation and development.

Dear colleagues, readers! In still short life Our newsletter has undergone important changes. From now on" Translation world"will be published in an increased volume in a magazine version. This became possible at the initiative of the ETS publishing house and its leader I.V. Fagradyants. Gradually, MP is establishing cooperation with well-known specialized publications and publishing houses, which is quite natural - after all, we are all concerned about the state of culture in general and translated book publishing in particular. activities of translators. And our Union, quite naturally, is trying in every possible way to promote this. We assume that the "MP" will retain the headings that have justified themselves (informational, legal, etc.), while at the same time more attention will be paid to both the internal problems of the Union (the life of our sections and regional offices, theory and practice of translation, creativity of our colleagues, general problems of culture, etc.), as well as information about the activities of FIT, other international and national organizations translators. In particular, in this issue we begin to acquaint readers with FIT committees, as well as with the press of foreign colleagues. Trial number "MP" will be released the day before major event in the life of our Union, which, by decision of the Government, received the status of an all-Russian and a new name - Union of Translators of Russia. The second congress of the SPR will sum up the period of formation of the professional organization of translators. Ahead, and for many years, is the work to develop our regional branches, to form a translation community in the country. The importance of the professional press in this matter cannot be overestimated. Let's wish the updated "World of Translation" and its readers a happy creative destiny.

Secretariat of the Board of the SPR

"Translation world"N4, 1994
heading: translator and law"The many-sided world of translation" is the motto of the world professional holiday, celebrated on September 30 translators of the world. Perception Translation as a complex structure of related professions is not accidental. Both specialized FIT committees, and national associations translators tend to analyze, systematize and codify different types of translation activities, which translators could use in everyday practice, in relations with the state and employers. Today, an article by L.O. Gurevich, President of the Union Russian translators we open a discussion on the issues of professional "self-determination" of translators. We invite the translation community of Russia and abroad to join the discussion of the problems posed in the article, the solution of which would mean another step in the development of national culture.

IN THE WORLD OF TRANSLATION PROFESSIONS

Since its inception, our professional organization has paid special attention to the analysis of the structure of translation professions, the specifics of work, legal regulation, social security and other factors that determine the efficiency of translators' work and, accordingly, their material and moral well-being. Such an analysis is not only of theoretical, but of purely practical interest, it allows us to identify serious omissions in our legislation, take into account international experience, help the FIT and UN specialized agencies (ILO, UNESCO, etc.) improve the principles of labor relations in the field of translation. The FIT has circulated the following list of professions for discussion among its member organizations: 1. scientific or technical translators(traducteurs scientifiques ou techniqeus, scintifis or technical translator) 2. translators for the media(traducteurs pour les medias, media translators) 3. terminologists (terminologues, terminologists) 4. simultaneous interpreters , conference interpreters(interpretes de conference, conference interpreters) 5. communal interpreters(interpretes sociaux, dits aussi interpretes communautaires, community interpreters) 6. court interpreters(interpretes judiciaires, legal interpreters) 7. sign language interpreters(interpretes gestu els, sign-language interpreters) 8. translation theorists or " translation scholars"(theoriciens de la traduction ou traductologues, traslation theorists, or "translatologists") 9. translation teachers(professeurs de traduction, teachers of translation) Until recently, the idea of translation specialists it was pretty monosyllabic. Like the attitude towards translators generally. In our country, there were, and are still in force, two regulatory documents - "Qualification directory of positions of managers, specialists and employees" and, as an industry recommendation document, "Qualification directory of positions of editorial and publishing workers" - regulating the organization of labor and containing job descriptions and duties of employees of different specialties. Due to translators were extremely rarely mentioned in official documents, a rather meager and not entirely competent description of a universal profession " translator " in these documents attracted attention and became, in 1991, the object of criticism from the newborn union of translators. At the same time, on behalf of the union, the author of this article sent the USSR State Committee for Labor his proposals for changing the nature and content of these documents, primarily articles relating to translators. The Office was asked to acknowledge the existence of a number of specific translation professions to start work together with their representatives to improve their legal status, guarantee their rights and interests. The proposals aroused keen interest, several discussions were held with the participation of the leaders of the State Committee for Labor, but ... the subsequent events in the country buried not only this department itself, but also, along with it, our proposals. And the problems raised by the translators are still relevant, although time has made significant amendments to them. Indeed, the current state translation business in the country is of great concern. Suffice it to recall the crisis of translated book publishing. Large translation teams of the former central publishing houses have disappeared, other publishing specialists (foreign editors, stylists, proofreaders, etc.) are out of work, their professional and social status is changing. Our original translation school on the foreign languages. Majority foreign translators and stylists were forced to leave Russia. The book market is crammed with shoddy translations, "piracy" is rampant. Despite the adoption of new copyright legislation, there are numerous infringements translator's rights publishers, businessmen and false colleagues. If before most of the masters translation were on the staff of publishing houses and enjoyed certain social guarantees, from now on almost all of them have become persons of "free professions". All this has created new problems. It is naive to expect that the state or other benefactors will take care of them. Much here depends on translators, from the activity of their trade union. The first stage is behind us, at which it was necessary to achieve the "legalization" of our professions, to formulate and present our problems to society and the authorities. Several years have passed. The new political and economic realities required a critical rethink of many things. However, methodologically, our approach to them has not changed much. We will not touch here on the history of the division of labor and the emergence of new professions. in the field of translation. Let historians and translation theorists. We will try to outline the main parameters and criteria for belonging to certain professions, allowing with sufficient objectivity to assess the nature and content of the work, the requirements for the performer, the conditions, including technical ones, of its implementation, its features in terms of legal and labor relations, payment labor, mutual obligations, labor hygiene standards, etc. And all this should be correlated with the norms and traditions existing in the world. Here, from our point of view, approximate circle questions, the answers to which could give a general idea of a specific professional activity: subject, content; genres, types; education, certification, professional and service categories; in the state or not; relations with employers (labor agreement, contract, service instructions, etc.); salary; benefits (state and public); promotions; training; social guarantees; working conditions; labor support (information, technical, vocabulary and reference, stationery, etc.); labor disputes and conflicts; copyright and contract violations; judicial and professional public defense; features of professional ethics; participation in professional and creative associations; international, mutual recognition of diplomas and certificates; professional translation expertise , assurances of their authenticity; international professional and legal documents. Such an approach would allow, subject to the implementation of other proposals of our Union (professional certification, etc.) and within the framework of the federal (interdepartmental) program for the development of translation in the country (the draft guidelines were developed and submitted by us to the government), to predict, in particular, the need in translation staff in the country as a whole and in its regions. So there are three main types translation activities - written, oral, its theoretical and applied support - is implemented by the following professional groups.

WRITTEN TRANSLATION

1. Written translators of literary, scientific, technical and other genres. The most common forms of use are: books and periodicals of all genres, translations for the media (news agencies, press, radio, television) and for audiovisual media (film, video, etc.), translations for musical and theatrical productions. If earlier the most important criterion confirming professionalism of translators, of course, was the very fact of accepting their works for publication (we are not talking about the content translated texts), which was guaranteed by a complex system of the publishing process and professional control, now this factor often does not work. The fall translation quality is convincing proof of this. All opportunities (legal, economic, etc.) should be used, professional certification should be introduced in order to raise the prestige translation activities, put a barrier to hack-work and incompetence. We have already submitted a project for organizing such certification to the government. In many countries it serves the most important means professional control, is, in the eyes of employers and society, along with membership in a trade union, a kind of "quality mark". After August 3, 1993 - date of entry into force of the Law on Copyright and Related Rights - civil law relations translators are regulated mainly by contracts (for details, see the materials of Prof. E.P. Gavrilov in N3 "MP", 1994). Russia's international obligations in the field of copyright should also be taken into account. Unfortunately, new law for all its merits raises many doubts about its interpretation and application, in particular when we are talking about oral forms of creativity, etc. "official" translations. 2. Translators-stylists. Highly qualified specialists (most often native speakers translation or bilinguals), carrying out, along with their own translation work, stylistic editing of translations. Creation of the original school of translation into foreign languages based on cooperation our translators with foreign colleagues within the framework of a single publishing team, made it possible to give a theoretical and practical answer to many controversial issues. After all, so far abroad, including in a number of international documents, translation into not native language considered unacceptable. The liquidation of such original collectives caused great damage Russian school of translation. It will take years and great efforts to restore what has been destroyed. Stylists work, as a rule, on the basis of contracts that take into account (unfortunately, not always!) the specifics of their status (citizenship, a special system of remuneration, relations with Russian legislation, etc.). Most often they are full-time literary employees of publishing houses, payment is piecework or at rates corresponding to the highest category translators. 3. translators service, official, regulatory and judicial documentation, including documents published in official (departmental) publications, texts of contracts, charters, patents, etc. Subjects of copyright. Except when translation is recognized by the state (the relevant governing body) as an official one. It is desirable, although not required, to have higher translation education, or other documents confirming the level of qualification. A special position in this group should belong to sworn translators legal and judicial documentation (they can also act as consecutive or simultaneous interpreters within the legal process). Institute court interpreters(the corresponding draft resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation on the introduction of such an institution was developed by us and submitted to the government) is intended to really guarantee the rights granted to citizens of Russia by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the current legislation. A special procedure for the preparation and certification of such translators, the issuance of special certificates and personal seals are envisaged. They take an oath and are responsible for statutory okay. Activities: translation of legal texts and legal documents, special legal literature, notarized documentation, translation (and participation) in business and legal proceedings. In this area, we have yet to study the experience gained by foreign colleagues. 4. translators with or without diplomatic status, working on the basis of official instructions, participants in the development of international and interstate documents. Their activities (including interpretation - consecutive or simultaneous) are determined by the specifics of their official duties. 5. Referent translators. Employed in enterprises, institutions and organizations of any legal form. Perform translations of commercial, business, service and other documentation, as well as correspondence, participate in the preparation of business agreements and contracts, carry out consecutive interpreting in negotiations within these organizations. We note some common for all groups translators moments. They can be full-time or supernumerary employees of institutions of any legal form, or create their own translation agencies, firms, translation agencies etc., or work individually under agreements and contracts. They should normally be subject to copyright provisions; in addition to the social guarantees provided for by the current legislation, employers must provide them with the necessary conditions for professional activities. translators (translation teams) of these groups should have the right to have their share in the property, funds and products of labor created with their participation. In cases where they participate in international cultural and other projects, the relevant international standards apply to them. Given the international nature of their specific activity, the need for foreign business trips and internships, the state (relevant departments) should provide them with visa and other types of support and protection. All of them, regardless of departmental affiliation, should have the right to be members (or not) in professional public associations and enjoy the rights and benefits provided by law for members of such associations.

ORAL TRANSLATION

6. (conference interpreters). Special, most qualified kind interpretation, making high demands on the level of professional skills, psychological and physical condition translator. As a rule, the training and activities of such translators are carried out on the basis of the rules and principles developed and applied by international professional organizations: FIT and AIIC (International Association of Conference Translators). There are two main methods of operation of synchronous commands: the so-called "Osnovskiy" or without a "pilot", i.e. the speaker's speech is translated directly into translator's native language(or, as an exception, into another working language), and the so-called "pilot" method, most widely practiced by our synchronous teams, when the speaker's speech is translated first into Russian(native) language, and then from it to the other working languages of the conference. At the same time, as a rule, translatorstranslate, at the same time, into their native and working languages. Given the apparent lack of information on the principles of operation simultaneous interpreters Let's talk about them in more detail. There are national or international (mixed) teams. All working languages of the conference should be represented in their composition (in cases where the speaker is given the right to speak in a non-working language, translation is carried out either sequentially, at the speaker's microphone, or in a special reserve booth into one of the working languages, and then according to the usual scheme. Unfortunately number translators in the cockpit has been constantly decreasing and currently stands at 2-3 people. The working day, starting from the moment of arrival at the place of work, the stipulated time should not exceed six hours (two three-hour sessions with a lunch break). Overtime, evening, night, non-working hours are paid extra. The calculation, including the cost of travel to the place of work, is made with each translator individually, but at the same rate for the team. Rare languages, forced cases of work as part of incomplete teams are paid especially. Types of payment: per working day or hourly. Proper conditions for work and rest must be provided in and out of the cab. The head of the team (booth), appointed by the organization that provided the interpreters, or by the team, represents its interests in relations with the organizers of the forum. Outside interference is not allowed professional activity translators. The leader (chairman) is obliged to create conditions conducive to quality translation. The presence of strangers in the cabins is not allowed. The organizers must ensure the normal functioning of equipment, timely supplying translators with materials forum. Nobody has the right demand from translators performance of tasks not related to their professional duties. This can take place only with the consent of the translator and the senior team and not to the detriment of the main work. When working abroad, payment for work (and daily allowance) must be made in the currency of the host country (unless otherwise provided by the agreement of the parties). Neither the organizers nor the interpreter himself has the right to impose and accept conditions that degrade professional dignity and can cause harm to health. 7. Simultaneous translation specialists lectures, radio and television programs, films and videos. eight. Consecutive interpreters. When working at conferences, negotiations, on radio and television, many of the rules provided for simultaneous interpreters . 9. Linear (accompanying) translators. Perform consecutive interpreting under specific conditions of customer service (accompaniment). Duties, working conditions, its duration and other issues related to their work are stipulated in agreements (contracts). 10. Guide interpreters. Serve excursions directly in the working language, and also act as an accompanying interpreter. They work in the state, under a contract or individually. eleven. Sign language interpreters. Relatively new specialization in simultaneous translation on television for the hearing impaired. It needs a special analysis, the development of specific conditions for training, work and pay. In general, the position interpreters of the above groups requires additional analysis. They are generally not protected by copyright, any other special regulations. They practically do not have their own public associations that would defend their rights and interests. It is therefore necessary to eliminate these gaps, in particular, in labor and copyright legislation. It is necessary to develop and fix in legal norms the principles of their relationship with employers, ensuring a fair assessment of their work, normal working and rest conditions, and technical equipment. Eliminate cases of incorrect attitude towards them by employers and clients. At the same time, interpreters must also strictly observe the rules of professional ethics, in particular confidentiality. It is necessary to develop standard contracts that take into account the interests of the parties. All these and many other problems can be more successfully solved within the framework of professional organizations, their creation should be encouraged, as well as their interaction with Union of Translators of Russia. Theoretical and applied support translation activities. 12. Translation theorists. Professionals working in the area of theories and history translation, having independent works of a theoretical and applied nature. The status is determined by their position as staff scientists or members of creative (scientific) associations. Subjects of copyright. 13. Teachers theories, history and practice translation. Usually, regular or part-time employees scientific or educational institutions. Their admission to the SPR is due, in addition to the main work, direct translation practice. As authors of scientific monographs, textbooks or teaching aids, curricula are subject to copyright. Engaged for development special programs translation training, their professional development and certification within the framework of the SWP. 14. Lexicographs-dictionaries. Authors, compilers, dictionary translators, encyclopedias, glossaries, specialized reference books, necessary in the work of translators and other specialists. Subjects of copyright. Regular and non-staff employees of publishing houses and other institutions. Work is carried out under contracts or in the order of service assignments. Special attention should be given to technical equipment and improvement of technical (computer) literacy of these specialists. In this area, cooperation with foreign colleagues is especially important. 15. Translators-programmers develop specialized programs and software for use directly in creative work translators, as well as for the accumulation, systematization, storage and transmission of various kinds of information. The novelty of this activity and subject, the need for rapid development computer literacy translators, creating various systems for the accumulation and use of data, electronic dictionaries and benefits requires an operational study of the problems and prospects in this area. sixteen. Expert translators. This qualification will be awarded by the Republican Commission for professional certification of translators(another project presented to the government) to highly qualified specialists in various fields of knowledge and creativity. They are involved in conducting legal, professional, linguistic, regional and other expertise on a contractual basis. Their activities should be determined by a special code developed jointly by the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation and the SPR on the basis of existing legal norms, as well as norms of professional ethics. Of course, this classification is not exhaustive. This is an invitation to serious discussion of issues of vital importance for the future. Translation in the country. Such a discussion should help the Union to more effectively defend the rights and interests of our colleagues, to better understand the large and complex translation industry. At the same time, this will be our contribution to the efforts of the international translation community.

The beginning of the development of general theoretical problems of translation was laid by books on the theory of translation fiction, the most "ancient" of the theories of translation. The diversity of the translation process gives rise not only to different theories of translation, but also types of translation that do not match in their characteristics, the selection of which must be scientifically substantiated. Every scientific classification has its basis of division.

For a long time, the axiom that interlingual transformations are carried out by a person, which was not in doubt, received a significant refinement in the 20th century: interlanguage transformations can be carried out by a person or a machine. The first basis for the classification of translation appeared - the mechanisms of interlingual transformations. This foundation laid the foundation for the theory of machine translation. In the short century of its existence, it has contributed to general theory translation is no less a contribution than existing theories human translation, although we should not forget that machine translation has absorbed all the achievements in the theory of translation of the "pre-machine" period. The theory of machine translation still exists as a whole, which is associated with the stability of the conditions of the machine translation process and the low competence of the machine (it is useless to let it translate fiction).

Thus, one of the bases of the division is the category of the actor in the translation, which makes it possible to distinguish between machine translation and human translation. A person has to work in various conditions and, depending on the situation, translate in writing or orally, perceive the original visually or by ear. There is a significant difference between written translation, which is not limited in time, which allows you to resort to the help of dictionaries and various reference books, and oral translation, which is carried out under extreme conditions for the functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator. This difference stems from the conditions of functioning of mental mechanisms, which are the basis for the classification of translation carried out by a person.

Therefore, for the classification of human translation, various bases of division are used (classification by type):

1. taking into account the ratio in time of the two main translation operations: the perception of the source text and the design of the translation. On this basis, J. Erber proposed his classification in 1952, distinguishing between two types of oral translation: simultaneous and consecutive. Moreover, he also included visual-oral translation from a sheet of paper to simultaneous translation, and subdivided consecutive translation into consecutive translation with and without the use of technical means.
2. taking into account the conditions for the perception of the message and the execution of the translation. You can perceive the message either visually or by ear, which already makes it possible to distinguish between visual and auditory translation. Translation can be done in writing or orally, providing for written and oral translations. But since each translation process includes both the perception of the message and the design of the translation, it becomes possible to speak of four types of translation: visual-written translation, visual-oral translation, written translation by ear and oral translation. The same classification was later proposed by L. S. Barkhudarov, but on a linguistic basis. He proposes to distinguish four main types of translation depending on the form of speech in which the source and target languages are used, calling them, respectively, written-written, oral-oral, written-oral and oral-written translation.

The types of interpretation are:

1. Consecutive one-way translation by ear.
2. Consecutive unilateral translation from a sheet.
3. Two-way translation of the conversation.
4. Simultaneous translation.
5. Selective advisory translation.

Types of written translation are:

1. Full written translation.
2. Abstract translation.
3. Translation type "express information".
4. Abstract translation.

However, this classification could not satisfy the majority of researchers. Indeed, visual-written translation, for example, cannot be put on a par with written translation by ear. Visual-written translation covers a huge area practical work with fiction and scientific and technical literature, as well as with information and propaganda texts, while translation by ear is reduced to one or more types academic work(translation-dictation, written translation of audio recordings).

Oral translation, in turn, includes two widely known independent types of translation: consecutive and simultaneous. Visual-oral translation occurs in practice rather as an auxiliary type of translation, when sight translation precedes visual-written translation of the same text or is used for dictation into a typewriter with subsequent editing.

Singling out only the conditions of perception of the text and the design of the translation as the basis for the classification of translation turns out to be insufficient. During the translation process, it functions significantly large quantity mental mechanisms, and the conditions for their work in various types translations are by no means identical.

That is why it is necessary to single out the mental mechanisms that function in translation and take the conditions of their work as the basis for classification. At the same time, it is necessary to study the features of the work of mental mechanisms in each of the types of translation tested in practice. If two or three types of translation are characterized by the same features of the functioning of mental mechanisms, then this means that we are talking about one type of translation. Otherwise, we are dealing with different types of translation, since each independent type of translation activity is characterized only by its inherent set of conditions for the functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator.

The most important mental mechanisms that carry out translation activities are:

- mechanisms of perception of the source text;
- memorization mechanisms;
- mechanisms of transition from one language to another;
- mechanisms of registration of translation;
- mechanisms for synchronization of translation operations.

These mechanisms can operate under a variety of conditions. In general, the complex of these conditions can be represented as follows:

1. Conditions for perceiving the text of the message both from the point of view of the leading analyzers (auditory or visual perception), and in terms of its repeatability (single or multiple).
2. Conditions of memorization in connection with the size of the perceived segments of speech (significant or insignificant load on memory).
3. Conditions for switching from one language to another in time (limited or unlimited).
4. Conditions for processing the translation, both in terms of the form of speech (oral or written), and in terms of the possibilities of correcting speech (single or multiple).
5. Conditions for the timing of the main operations in the translation process (simultaneity or sequence of operations).

Comparative analysis of various types of translation activity in terms of the oppositions just listed (auditory - visual perception, significant - insignificant load on memory, etc.) should show the legitimacy of their selection in cases where they have their own combination of features.

For the analysis, the types of translation that have found wide ethical application were selected:

- written translation;
- Simultaneous translation;
- translation from a sheet;
- consecutive translation;
- paragraph-phrase translation;
- two-way translation;

From the point of view of the functioning of the mental mechanisms of an interpreter, one should distinguish between written translation, simultaneous translation, sight translation and consecutive translation. The complexity of this or that type of translation activity is determined not only by the conditions of functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator, but also by the nature of the source texts typical for this type of translation, and the requirements for translated texts, i.e. to the result of the translator's work.

The conditions for the functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator is not the only basis for the classification of translation. The work of a translator also depends on the characteristics of the material with which he has to deal. Thus, according to this principle, two main types of translation are distinguished: artistic and informative.

In literary translation, it is important not only to convey the content, but also to express this content by means of artistic means equivalent to the original, so that the translation has the same charge of emotional and aesthetic impact on the reader as the original. In literary translation, one can single out the translation of prose, poetry and dramatic works, because each of these genres differs from the others quite significantly.

In informative translation, the main thing is to transfer all the information in another language without any distortion. This type of translation includes the translation of newspaper publications, scientific articles, technical descriptions, patent literature, materials on economics and commercial activities, as well as the translation of branded materials.

The work of a translator also depends on the language means that make up the material being translated.

We have already talked about units of speech that require a separate solution for translation. In all cases, such a decision was determined by the specifics of the semasiological connections of these speech units. Moreover, the specificity of semasiological connections is not only a feature of a particular unit of text that has to be taken into account, but it also implies a professional orientation, special training of a translator who is going to carry out translation operations with these units of speech. In order to translate speech units with erased semasiological connections, it is necessary to know foreign language equivalents; with fixed semasiological connections - to study terminology from a particular branch of science; in order to translate speech units with temporary semasiological connections, it is necessary to be able to recreate images in the translated text.

Of course, most of the materials that a translator has to work with include units of speech with various semasiological connections. And, nevertheless, the genre character of materials depends precisely on their saturation with linguistic means with the corresponding semasiological connections. So, in the texts of fiction, linguistic means with temporary semasiological connections predominate, i.e. figurative expressions that are necessary to provide an emotional impact on the reader. Figurative expressions, tropes are a form of artistic knowledge of reality. They are usually conditional, individual and constitute main feature artistic texts.

Forms of scientific knowledge of reality, i.e. scientific and technical descriptions require linguistic means with a fixed semasiological connection, which were created for this purpose in the form of terms. It is the terms that determine the genre nature of scientific and technical texts.

Finally, the language of mass communication, which is presented in information and propaganda materials, is saturated with easily accessible to the general reader or auditor, and therefore often repeated expressions. It is in these materials that linguistic means with an erased semasiological connection predominate.

The work of a translator with texts that differ in the nature of the language means, mainly contained in them, also requires different professional knowledge and skills and even abilities. If such types of translation as written, simultaneous, consecutive, sight translation were distinguished depending on the conditions of the translator’s work, which form the basis of the classification, then it is possible to single out other types of translation, if we take the form of semasiological connections of linguistic means as the basis for the classification, determining the nature of the source texts. In this case, the translation classification can be inserted as follows:

1. The translation of texts saturated with figurative expressions, tropes (language means with temporary semasiological connections) is called literary translation.
2. Translation of texts saturated with terminology (language means with fixed semasiological connections) is a scientific and technical translation.
3. The translation of texts saturated with clichés and clichés (language means with erased semasiological connections), the number of which is especially large in newspaper materials, is a socio-political translation.

The specialization of translators in the field of literary, scientific, technical or socio-political translation is directly related to the specifics of the language means that determine this type of translation. To work in the field of literary translation, a translator must have literary talent, or at least develop the ability to clothe his written speech into a literary form corresponding to the style of a particular author. This is required by the temporary semasiological connections of the linguistic means with which he has to work. Temporary semasiological connections of linguistic means exclude oral species translation, since temporary semasiological connections are created as a result of creativity, which is impossible under time constraints. That is why literary translation is always written translation.

To work in the field of scientific and technical translation, a translator needs special knowledge in the field of science or technology from which the text is taken.

Since it is impossible to know all branches of science and technology, they usually specialize in a particular branch, which led to the division of scientific and technical translation into military translation, economic translation, medical translation, radio engineering translation, etc. Special knowledge is needed not only in order to understand the source texts, but also in order to correctly use terms in speech, i.e. linguistic means with a fixed semasiological connection.

The fixedness of semasiological connections allows you to establish direct sign connections between the linguistic means of two languages in translation, and therefore use the sign method of translation - necessary condition oral types of translation.

A special place is occupied by socio-political translation, in which information and propaganda texts are interspersed with scientific ones, and therefore linguistic means with an erased semasiological connection coexist with linguistic means with a fixed semasiological connection. This means that in order to work in the field of socio-political translation, one needs, firstly, relevant political knowledge, and secondly, the ability to quickly find interlingual equivalents. A set of language tools with erased and fixed semasiological connections makes it possible to carry out oral translations especially successfully, although it does not exclude the possibility of written translation.

As can be seen from the above, the types of translation received as an answer to the question "How to translate?" (based on the classification - the conditions of the translator's work), do not coincide with the types of translation of the classification, which is based on the genre nature of texts, i.e. answering the question "What to translate?".

In addition, there is a classification of the translation by quality (the degree of adequacy of the original is taken into account):

1. Literal translation (only possible if means of expression two languages are the same, i.e. the volumes of the concept and grammatical categories (meanings of words and grammatical structures) coincide.
2. Literal translation (the expressive means of the two languages do not match, but the translator does not know this: "to be born with a silver spoon in one "s mouth" - "to be born in a shirt" - literally translates "to be born with a silver spoon in your mouth." Literalism very often does not allow us to understand the true meaning of the statement).
3. Free or authorized translation - approximately correct translation, because the translator allows himself to express a little more or a little less than what the author expressed, and sometimes allows significant deviations from the content of the original. I don "t know what is in store for me. Yet I do know I" ll do it when two Sundays come together, "when two Sundays come together" translates "I will never do this", conveying only the meaning, the adequate is not used expression "when the cancer hangs"
4. Adequate (equivalent) translation - expresses everything that the original does, and produces the same emotional impact.

In translation, as in any activity, the translator has to adapt to the working conditions. Adaptation to working conditions practically results in the following types of translation:

written, simultaneous, consecutive translations and translation from a sheet.

Modifications of consecutive translation are also possible in the form of one-way and two-way translation, paragraph-phrase translation and translation with notes.

Adaptation to the object of application of the translator's forces or to what can be expressed by the formula "What to translate?" gives rise to other types of translation: artistic, socio-political and scientific-technical.

Although the conditions for the functioning of mental mechanisms ("How to translate?") and the semasiological connections of linguistic means ("What to translate?") appear in any translation process independently of each other, nevertheless, their compatibility must be taken into account, otherwise the translator will not be able to fulfill his task, for example piece of art impossible to translate simultaneously or from a sheet).

Knowledge of history and current state

Section 4. Content of training

First of all, let's try to briefly characterize the knowledge and skills that make up the main content of training. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that there is a close relationship between them and many skills can only be created on the basis of relevant knowledge. In the course of training, the future translator should acquire, in general, the following knowledge:

Get an idea about the basic stages of the history of translation and the features of translation activity in modern world;

Get an idea about the concept of translatability, non-identity of the content of the original and translation, the principle of ensuring minimal losses;

Get an idea about the concepts of interlingual communication, equivalence and adequacy of translation; - get an idea of the pragmatic aspects of translation and the basic ways of pragmatic translation adaptation;

Get an idea about the classification of translations and different types of translation strategy;

To study the main models of translation and translation transformations and how to use them in the analysis of the translation process and its results;

To study the main types of translation correspondences and methods of translation of non-equivalent language units;

Get an idea of the basic principles of translating a connected text;

Get an idea of the grammatical and stylistic aspects of translation.

All this knowledge is communicated to students both at special lectures and seminars, and during practical classes. At the same time, it is very important that students clearly see the connection between the knowledge they gain and translation practice, their extreme importance for solving specific problems of translation.

It is extremely important for a professional translator to have an idea of the socio-historical role of translation and the basic stages in the development of translation activity. He should be aware of the enormous contribution of translators to the formation national language, literature and culture

tours of peoples, about the role of translation in international contacts in the field of diplomacy, politics, trade, science and technology. The training program includes information about the occurrence of a transfer in ancient times, its historical evolution, about the periods and reasons for the predominance of literal, free and ʼʼʼʼʼʼ translation, about the features of the history of translation activity in Russia and outstanding Russian translators. A special place in the course is occupied by familiarization with the main features of translation activity in the modern world: the predominance of informative translations, increased requirements for translation accuracy, a large thematic and stylistic variety of materials that one has to deal with. professional translator, specialization and technicalization of translated texts, widespread use of technical means in the translation process, etc. All this knowledge allows future translators to realize the complexity and importance of their profession, to get acquainted with the material and organizational aspects of the work of a translator.

Translation activity - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Translation activities" 2017, 2018.

- The main stages of the history of translation activity

SECTION 1. HISTORY OF TRANSLATION ACTIVITY Section 4. PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION Section 3. Special theory of translation REFERENCES 1. M. Waite, S. Right, D. Martin. SI language. - M.: "Mir", 1988. 2. Kernigan B., Ritchie D. Language ... .

- A brief outline of the history of translation activities

The concept of translation competence The goal of teaching translation is to develop students' translation competence, which is understood as a certain set of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a translator to perform his professional ... .

- Variety of translation activities

Peculiarities of bilingual communication In the process of interlingual communication, the main patterns of using language as a means of communication are preserved. However, its bilingual nature predetermines the existence of a number of distinctive features.... .

Organization of translation activities. Theoretical and applied support of translation activities

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