Social policy of the 1920s. Social security of Soviet citizens under the NEP
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Introduction
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia became an endless field for an unprecedented social experiment. For the first time in history, people came to power who set themselves the goal of eliminating private property, "building" a new social order- socialism, and lay the foundation for a new state - the Soviet one.
The slowness and inconsistency of the actions of the Provisional Government after the February Revolution in solving labor, agrarian, national issues, the continued participation of Russia in the war led to a deepening of the national crisis and created the preconditions for the strengthening of extreme left parties in the center and nationalist parties on the outskirts of the country.
The Bolsheviks acted most vigorously, proclaiming a course for a socialist revolution in Russia, which they considered the beginning of a world revolution. They put forward popular slogans: "Peace to the peoples", "Land to the peasants", "Factories to the workers". By the end of August - the beginning of September, they won a majority in the Soviets of Petrograd and Moscow and began preparing an armed uprising timed to coincide with the opening of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. On the night of October 24-25 (November 6-7), armed workers, soldiers of the Petrograd garrison and sailors Baltic Fleet The Winter Palace was captured and the Provisional Government arrested. The congress, at which the Bolsheviks, along with the Left SRs, owned the majority, approved the overthrow of the Provisional Government, adopted the Decrees on Peace and Land, formed a government - the Council of People's Commissars, headed by V. I. Lenin. Having suppressed the resistance of the forces loyal to the Provisional Government in Petrograd and Moscow, the Bolsheviks were able to quickly establish dominance in the main industrial cities Russia.
The period of the establishment of Soviet power and the subsequent Civil War had the most negative impact on the Russian cities. The revolution in Russia has come a long and bloody four-year path. It included both a short "democratic euphoria" and complete anarchy, when a small group of energetic and active people were able to dramatically expand their influence and seize power. Final fixing new government in legislation occurred in July 1918, when the Constitution of the RSFSR, or the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic as the new state came to be called.
1. Socio-economic and political measures Soviet power(November 1917 - summer 1918)
The successful seizure of power in Russia in October 1917 and its expansion to most of the country prompted the Bolshevik leadership, headed by Lenin, to take decisive action to strengthen their positions.
The new Soviet government initially did not have any real leverage over the entire system of government. Sending emissaries to the localities, mastering communication lines, establishing a system for transmitting orders from the center and monitoring their execution became the primary tasks of the post-October period. Very soon they realized that their own illusions about the “destruction of the bourgeois” state and its repressive organs were unrealizable. They quickly stopped experimenting with workers' self-management, the voluntary formation of a new army and the "universal armament of the working people", that is, with the slogans with which they came to power. To hold on to power, they needed an efficient repressive machine. That is why the militia, the emergency commission for combating counter-revolution, and the system of tribunals were formed so quickly.
The basis of the new power was the system of Soviets in the center and in the localities, where it was carried out with the mass organizations of workers: trade unions, factory committees. The supreme body of power was the All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Between congresses, these functions were performed by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK). The Council of People's Commissars was responsible to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, which had the right to control and remove the government.
most typical and hallmark The new power was a combination of legislative and executive power. The All-Russian Central Executive Committee, through the departments he created, led the relevant industries state building and political life country. The Council of People's Commissars, which received the right to carry out measures to combat counter-revolution directly, that is, without preliminary consideration by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (under the condition of responsibility to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee), acquired the right of legislative initiative. The creation of a new and the demolition of the old apparatus of power were carried out in parallel. Following the overthrow of the Provisional Government, the old organs of its local power, as well as various organizations of the bourgeois-landlord classes: security committees, public committees, were to be liquidated. The Chancellery of the Provisional Government, the Main Economic Committee and the Council under the Provisional Government, the Chancellery for accepting petitions addressed to the highest name were liquidated.
The power of the Soviets was established in the provinces, districts, volosts and villages. On December 24, an instruction on local councils was published, establishing their structure, rights and obligations in relation to central bodies and voters. Under the Soviets, departments were created to manage economic and cultural life. On November 14, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the "Regulations on Workers' Control", the draft of which was written by Lenin. The establishment of workers' control over the production and distribution of industrial products was an important step towards the nationalization of industry.
In order to eliminate the post-war devastation and improve the economic situation of the country, the question was of demobilizing industry, that is, of transferring military factories to the production of consumer goods.
At a meeting of the Council of People's Commissars on November 27, in one of the paragraphs of Lenin's draft resolution on the organization of a special commission for the implementation of socialist policy in the economic field.
On December 2, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree establishing the Supreme Council National economy(VSNKh) - regulatory authority economic life young republic. On December 14, in view of the sabotage of banking dealers, by order of the Soviet government, all the banks and credit institutions of Petrograd were occupied by detachments of workers and Red Guards. On the same day, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted a decree "On the nationalization of banks."
To combat counter-revolution, a special body was created under the Council of People's Commissars - the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Sabotage and Profiteering (VChK). At its head, the party placed the tried and tested Bolshevik-Leninist F. E. Dzerzhinsky. The defense of the socialist state was impossible without the creation of a strong military organization. The democratization of the army carried out in the very first weeks after October, and then its demobilization, were the Soviet form of breaking up the old army. At the same time, searches were made for ways to create new armed forces. On January 15, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree on the creation of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, and on January 29, a decree on the formation of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Fleet. The results of the elections to the Constituent Assembly predetermined its fate: the composition of the deputies (out of 715 people there were 175 Bolsheviks, 40 Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, 86 representatives from national groups; the rest belonged to the Right Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks), on January 7, at a meeting of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, a decree was adopted by a majority of votes the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. Until October, the Bolsheviks were ardent supporters of freedom of the press. One of the first decrees was a decree that in practice undermined and destroyed the entire opposition press. If necessary, the new government was not afraid to oppose the Soviets, although it was called Soviet.
During the period of strengthening Soviet power up until August 1918, the Bolsheviks were still only groping for the levers of social policy. Along with this, both violent forms and methods and peaceful ones were determined. The first manifested themselves primarily in the form of layoffs for political motives, the withdrawal of material resources from the hands of the bourgeoisie (by way of confiscations, requisitions, one-time collections of funds). They were of limited use. The latter were implemented through material support, the introduction of a system social security, creation of bodies social protection, folding social privileges.
One of the first decisions of the Soviet government in the social sphere was the establishment of an 8-hour working day (October 29, 1917); for teenagers, a reduced working day was determined. Mandatory payment of unemployment and sickness benefits was envisaged.
The decree of November 10 abolished the class division of society. A single name was introduced for the entire population of Russia - a citizen of the Russian Republic. Decisions were made on the equalization of the rights of men and women in the field of family law, in political terms. In February 1918, the country switched to the common European Gregorian calendar.
A few days earlier, on January 20, a decree was issued separating the school from the church, and the church from the state. This decision consolidated the equal status of all religions in Russia, as well as the right of the state to conduct broad atheistic propaganda. By decree, the church was deprived of the opportunity to own property.<Здания и предметы, предназначенные специально для богослужебных целей,- указывалось в документе,- отдаются в бесплатное пользование соответствующих религиозных обществ>.
The decree was extremely painfully received in church circles, the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, who worked from August 1917, until that moment refrained from assessing the October coup. But already on January 19, Metropolitan Tikhon, elevated by the Cathedral in November for the first time since the time of Peter the Great to the rank of patriarch, betrayed the Soviet rulers to an ecclesiastical curse - anathema. The patriarch accused them of<самом разнузданном своевластии и сплошном насилии над всеми>. The Council supported Tikhon, calling on the faithful to resist<нашествию антихриста, беснующегося безбожием>without stopping before armed resistance:<Лучше кровь свою пролить и удостоиться венца мученического, чем допустить веру православную врагам на поругание.
In February 1918, the death penalty was restored. Opponents of the Bolshevik regime were imprisoned in prisons and concentration camps. Assassination attempts on V.I. Lenin and the murder of M.S. Uritsky, chairman of the Petrograd Cheka, was summoned by a decree on the "Red Terror" (September 1918). The arbitrariness of the Cheka and local authorities unfolded, which, in turn, provoked anti-Soviet speeches. The rampant terror was generated by many factors: the aggravation of the confrontation between various social groups and the growth of resistance to the Bolshevik authorities; low intellectual level of the bulk of the population, poorly prepared for political life, but quickly learned the slogan "Rob the loot"; the uncompromising position of the Bolshevik leadership, which considered it necessary and possible to retain power at any cost.
Since September 1918, the nature of Soviet power has changed. This was a reflection of the policy of the center and was automatically transferred to the local level. The dominant role began to play the red terror as an instrument of social policy. Its functions consisted in the physical destruction of those who resisted Soviet power, instilling fear and isolating in concentration camps. However, almost immediately its main features appeared - mass character and facelessness. This greatly contributed to the death of the mass of citizens only because they belonged in the past to the ruling class (nobility, clergy, merchants) or class (large, middle, and then petty bourgeoisie). The logic of revolutionary violence gradually led to a constant resort to terror in an emergency.
The distribution system created contributed to the subordination of the population as a whole. Card supply has become a reliable tool. It entirely depended on the class affiliation (class ration) of citizens. In the conditions of the crisis of the state food monopoly, obtaining food and industrial goods on cards remained practically the only way to supply.
With the help of a tough tax policy, the Bolsheviks were able to suppress a layer of private owners. An important place among the taxes of that period was taken by the One-Time Extraordinary Revolutionary Tax. Its collection was accompanied by confiscation and inventory of property, arrest, etc. The same measures ensured the receipt of other taxes.
Applying the provision of the Constitution "who does not work, he does not eat", the Bolsheviks used labor relations to change the social structure. Belonging to a professional organization, which granted the right to various benefits, acquired great importance. In this regard, the registration and accounting of the able-bodied population played an important role.
In parallel with relying on violent methods of politics, the Bolsheviks improved peaceful forms and methods. The policy of social security, the public catering system, material assistance, and the creation of new social benefits (in particular, in the field of taxation) have reached a wide scope.
At the final stage of the civil war, the crisis phenomena of the social policy of the Bolsheviks appeared: there were not enough funds for social security, violent methods of managing the rear became obsolete. A noticeable consequence of this period was the growth in the number of civil servants, who, by virtue of their ability to control the sphere of distribution, became a strong support of Soviet power. In general, the contradictions between the desire to normalize economic life by means of violent methods of management became more and more pronounced: labor conscription, mobilization, the curtailment of social guarantees for the proletariat, and terror.
The general consequence of social policy towards the urban population was a change in the numerical composition and its social structure, in accordance with the goal of strengthening the social support of the Bolsheviks under the sole domination of the Communist Party. In its mass, the population did not understand and did not accept the ongoing revolutionary changes. The proletariat quickly became disillusioned with the "dictatorship for the proletariat", since it was practically excluded from participation in the development and adoption of decisions.
The methods and tools developed and tested in the conditions of the civil war were later used by the Soviet government.
2. The policy of "war communism"
The Civil War set before the Bolsheviks the task of creating a huge army, the maximum mobilization of all resources, and hence - the maximum centralization of power and the subordination of all spheres of the state's life. "War communism" is the economic policy of the state in conditions of economic ruin and civil war, the mobilization of all forces and resources for the defense of the country.
As a result, the policy of "war communism", pursued by the Bolsheviks in 1918-1920, was built, on the one hand, on the experience of state regulation of economic relations during the First World War, because. there was ruin in the country; on the other hand, on utopian ideas about the possibility of a direct transition to market-free socialism, which ultimately led to the acceleration of the pace of socio-economic transformations in the country during the years of the Civil War.
The main elements of the policy of "war communism".
The policy of "war communism" included a set of measures that affected the economic and socio-political sphere. The main thing in this was: the nationalization of all means of production, the introduction of centralized management, equal distribution of products, forced labor and the political dictatorship of the Bolshevik Party.
The surplus appropriation became a logical continuation of the food dictatorship. The state determined its needs for agricultural products and forced the peasantry to supply them without taking into account the possibilities of the countryside. For the confiscated products, the peasants were left receipts and money, which lost their value due to inflation. The established fixed prices for products were 40 times lower than the market ones. The village desperately resisted and therefore the surplus was implemented by violent methods with the help of food detachments.
The policy of "war communism" led to the destruction of commodity-money relations. The sale of food and industrial goods was limited, they were distributed by the state in the form of wages in kind. An equalizing system of wages among workers was introduced. This gave them the illusion of social equality. The failure of this policy was manifested in the formation of a "black market" and the flourishing of speculation.
In the social sphere, the policy of "war communism" was based on the principle "Who does not work, he does not eat." Labor service was introduced for representatives of the former exploiting classes, and in 1920 - universal labor service. Forced mobilization of labor resources was carried out with the help of labor armies sent to restore transport, construction work, etc. The naturalization of wages led to the free provision of housing, utilities, transport, postal and telegraph services.
In the political sphere, the undivided dictatorship of the RCP(b) was established. The Bolshevik Party ceased to be a purely political organization; its apparatus gradually merged with state structures. It determined the political, ideological, economic and cultural situation in the country, even the personal life of citizens. communism bolshevik political social
The results of the policy of "war communism".
As a result of the policy of "war communism", socio-economic conditions were created for the victory of the Soviet Republic over the interventionists and the White Guards. At the same time, the war and the policy of "war communism" had grave consequences for the country's economy. Violation of market relations caused the collapse of finance, the reduction of production in industry and agriculture. The acute political and economic crisis prompted the leaders of the party to reconsider "the whole point of view of socialism." After a broad discussion in late 1920 - early 1921, the gradual abolition of the policy of "war communism" began. Devastation and famine, strikes of workers, uprisings of peasants and sailors - all testified to the fact that a deep economic and social crisis had matured in the country. In addition, by the spring of 1921, the hope for an early world revolution and the material and technical assistance of the European proletariat had been exhausted. Therefore, V. I. Lenin revised his internal political course and recognized that only the satisfaction of the demands of the peasantry could save the power of the Bolsheviks.
Conclusion
Summing up, we can state that the formation of the principles of the social policy of the Bolsheviks has passed a long period. The deep socio-political crisis in Russia, which coincided with the pan-European crisis, contributed to the victory of the Bolsheviks due to the strong revolutionary traditions regarding the "non-bourgeois" nature of the country, the remnants of feudalism in the socio-economic and spiritual spheres. As a result of their unprecedented cruelty of pressure, Russia turned onto a non-capitalist, alternative path of development. The Bolsheviks managed to preserve the statehood, sovereignty of Russia and create a new economic model in the conditions of the crisis of market relations. But, despite the statements of the Bolsheviks about their desire for genuine democracy for the working people, for a dying "state-commune", the socialist path inevitably led to the curtailment of any democracy, a rigid one-party dictatorship and a bureaucratic system, an order of magnitude more powerful than in tsarist Russia. The Bolsheviks not only implemented those anti-people measures that the bourgeoisie proposed in the summer of 1917 (the introduction of the death penalty, the militarization of labor, the elimination of the Soviets), but also surpassed them, turning total state coercion and mass terror into the most important levers of control.
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C4. Name at least three results of the revolution of 1905-1907. Give at least three provisions that reflect the significance of the revolution for the national history of the early 20th century.
- Three changes that took place in the political system of the Russian Empire during the revolution of 1905-1907:
- a legislative representative body was created - the State Duma
- Fundamental political freedoms are guaranteed
– the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire were revised
– legal activity of political parties, trade unions is allowed
- redemption payments canceled
– reduced working hours, legalized economic strikes, increased wages
- Three provisions reflecting the meaning of the revolution:
- the revolution accelerated the economic processes. Political, social modernization of Russia, its transition from a traditional society to an industrial society
- a step was taken towards the approval of the constitutional order in Russia, the actual limitation of the power of the emperor by the State Duma
— have developed a trend towards the formation of civil society in the country
- the revolution could not resolve many and the authorities were never established, which became one of the new revolutionary explosion.
C4. Name the political parties and blocs whose representatives entered in 1917. to the first composition of the Provisional Government. Name the questions the decision of which the Provisional Government postponed until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly.
- Political parties:
- Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets)
- Progressive Bloc (Progressives)
- Questions may be asked:
- about the future state structure of the country;
- agrarian question;
- work question
- national question
Spring-autumn 1917. in Russia there was a sharp political struggle. During which the question of alternatives for the development of the country was decided. One of the important events of this period was the speech of L.G. Kornilov. A variety of forces united in the struggle against him - from A.F. Kerensky to the Bolsheviks.
Why did the positions of such different political forces coincide? How did Kornilov's speech end? What changes in the political situation took place at the end of August-September 1917? Give facts.
1. Reasons can be given:
- there was a real threat of establishing a military dictatorship;
- Kornilov's speech could lead to the fall of the Provisional Government;
- Kornilov demanded the dissolution of the Soviets, in which various political forces were represented
- In response:
A) it should be said about the defeat of Kornilov's speech;
B) the following changes in the political situation can be named:
- strengthening the positions of the Bolsheviks in the Soviets (Bolshevization of the Soviets);
- the advancement by the Bolsheviks of a course towards an armed uprising and the transfer of all power to the Soviets;
- A.F. Kerensky's loss of support from all leading political parties;
C5. Compare the positions of V.I. Lenin and N.I. Bukharin on the issue of concluding a separate peace with Germany in the spring of 1918. What was common in them (at least two characteristics), and what was different (at least three differences).
General:
- - both assessed the prospects for concluding a separate peace from the point of view of the interests of the world revolution
- - both considered a separate peace humiliating and shameful
- - both declared the need to use separate negotiations with Germany for propaganda purposes.
Differences:
Position V.I. Lenin | The position of N.I. Bukharin |
Immediately conclude a separate peace with Germany | Refuse to conclude a separate peace with Germany |
The immediate conclusion of a separate peace is in the interests of the world revolution. | It is in the interests of the world revolution to unleash a revolutionary war |
Only immediate peace with Germany can protect Soviet power. | Soviet power can only be defended by the support of the world proletariat, the world revolution |
The rejection of a separate peace will lead to the defeat of the Soviet government, to a military catastrophe. | Rejection of a separate peace will lead to the unleashing of a revolutionary war |
C6. Consider historical. situations and answer questions.
In 1921, a collection of articles "Change of milestones" was published in Prague. The collection gained great fame and caused heated debate among the Russian emigration.
List any three questions that were discussed. And describe the positions that the authors adhered to for each of them.
1. The questions that have become the subject of discussion can be named:
- about the causes and essence of the revolution and the Civil War;
- about the attitude to the Soviet power;
- about the essence and possible consequences of the New Economic Policy;
- about the prospects for the development of Russia.
2. The following main ideas of the "Smenovekhites" can be named:
- understanding of the revolution and the Civil War as a phenomenon caused by everything in Russian history;
- revision of the attitude towards Bolshevism and Soviet power as a force capable of ensuring the restoration of the national and state unity of Russia at a new historical stage; conclusion about the need for emigration to cooperate with the Bolsheviks for the revival of Russia;
- understanding of the transition to the NEP as an internal rebirth of Bolshevism ("economic Brest");
- hope. That cooperation with the Bolsheviks will push the process of their internal rebirth
1. Events can be named:
C7. Specify the prerequisites and principles for the formation of the USSR in 1922.
Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR:
- the tradition of coexistence of peoples as part of the multinational Russian Empire
- the proclamation of national equality after the February Revolution
- recognition of the right of peoples to self-determination after October 1917.
- proclamation of independent republics in Ukraine, Moldova, the Baltic states, Transcaucasia, Central Asia
- the defeat by the Red Army of the troops of the white armies and foreign invaders
Restoration of Soviet power in Ukraine. In Transcaucasia, Central Asia
Principles of formation of the USSR:
- voluntariness
Equality of sovereign republics
— transfer of part of sovereign rights to the Center
- the impossibility of changing the territory of the republics without their consent.
C7. Describe the circumstances of creation, the main content and significance of the activities of the State Duma in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
Circumstances of creation
- The State Duma was established by the tsar's Manifesto on October 17, 1905. under the pressure of revolutionary uprisings
- elections to the Duma were not universal, equal and direct (they were held in several stages, there were different norms of representation for different classes, some groups of the population did not have the right to vote)
Activity
- The Duma had only legislative rights (that is, it had to share legislative power with the tsar and the State Council)
- The Duma could not dismiss the government and appoint a new prime minister
- 1 Duma began its activity in April 1906.
The first composition of the Duma included representatives of the main political parties that existed at that time in Russia; the majority in it were the Cadets and the peasant party of the Trudoviks.
- The main issue discussed by the 1st and 2nd Dumas was the agrarian question
The dissolution of the 2nd State Duma and the change in the provision on elections are considered as a coup d'état
C7.V.O. Klyuchevsky considered the Decembrist movement "a historical accident, overgrown with literature."
What other judgments about the prerequisites for the emergence of the Decembrist movement do you know? What statements do you think are the most persuasive? Name the facts, provisions that can serve as arguments confirming your chosen judgment.
Judgments:
A. the contradictions of Russian reality, primarily between the urgent needs of Russia's national development and the autocratic-feudal system;
Influence on the ideological formation of the Decembrists of liberal ideas during the reforms of Alexander 1. (during the first period of his reign);
B. impressions of the Patriotic War of 1812, which accelerated the ideological formation of the Decembrists;
C. the perception by the participants of the Decembrist movement of the experience of the socio-political development of the countries of Europe and Latin America.
Arguments:
A. - the feudal system of management was perceived as a brake on the economic development of Russia;
- participants in secret societies perceived the serfdom of peasants as an immoral, shameful phenomenon for Russia;
- the departure of the emperor from liberal reforms led to the conclusion that. That progressive transformations can only be carried out by members of secret societies.
B. - during the Patriotic War, there was a rapprochement between representatives of the estates;
- the Decembrists came to the conclusion that the Russian people, who defended the independence of Russia, liberated the countries of Europe from the rule of Napoleon, deserve a better fate
V. - the Decembrists adopted the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, the French Revolution of the late 18th century,
- revolutionary events in Europe (Spain, Prussia), Latin America influenced the Decembrists;
- during the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814. the future Decembrists saw with their own eyes that the peoples of European countries have greater freedoms than the peoples of Russia.
C5. Compare the main provisions of "Russian Truth" P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" N.M. Muraviev. What was common in them (at least two common characteristics), and what was different (at least three differences).
- The following can be mentioned as general characteristics of the main provisions of Russkaya Pravda and the Constitution:
- abolition of serfdom
- abolition of sovereignty
- the destruction of the estate system, equality of citizens before the law, freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, equal court
- Differences:
"Russian Truth" | "Constitution" |
Proclamation of Russia as a republic | The transformation of Russia into a constitutional monarchy |
The destruction of royal power, the People's Council as the supreme body of legislative power and the State Duma as the highest body of executive power Equal suffrage for the entire male population of the country, without qualifications | Giving the emperor the functions of executive power with a number of significant powers, the establishment of the People's Council as the supreme legislative power High electoral qualification, elections are unequal and multistage |
Confiscation of part of the landlords' land; division of all land into a public and private fund, the possibility for peasants to receive a land plot in a public redemption fund | Preservation of landed estates inviolability. Inviolability, endowment of peasants with household plots and 2 acres of land |
Participants that existed in Russia since 1816. secret societies have been developing plans for the seizure of power for a long time. However, the speech on December 14, 1825. on Senate Square in St. Petersburg was defeated.
Name at least two reasons for the defeat of the Decembrists on the development of social thought. On the domestic policy of Nicholas 1? Give at least three statements.
The following reasons for the defeat of the performance of the Decembrists can be named:
- insufficient preparedness of the speech (since the Decembrists hastened to take advantage of the situation of interregnum);
- the rate of the Decembrists on a conspiracy (and a military coup)
- dictator S.P. Trubetskoy did not appear on Senate Square;
- waiting tactics of the Decembrists
- decisive actions (cruel measures) of Nicholas 1 against the Decembrists (the use of artillery);
- The Decembrists did not take advantage of the support of the people.
The influence of the Decembrists on the development of social thought and domestic policy was manifested:
- in the awareness by representatives of public thought of the inconsistency of the ideological foundations of the Decembrists' movement (the development of new socio-political theories);
- in the emergence (development) of the revolutionary tradition in Russia;
- in the emergence of new trends in social thought in the following decades (Westerners, Slavophiles, representatives of "Russian", "communal" socialism);
- in the implementation by Nicholas 1 of a policy aimed at strengthening autocratic power.
C4. What are the reasons for the tightening of the Stalinist political after the Second World War. Give examples of tightening the regime.
Examples of the Stalinist regime:
- strengthening after the Great Victory in the war the authority of Stalin;
- Stalin's decision to follow the pre-war model of the country's development, which required a brutal centralization of state administration;
- the desire to strengthen unanimity in society, to suppress the democratic sentiments that arose after the war among the population
Examples that testify to the tightening of the Stalinist regime:
- "Leningrad case"
- "doctors' case"
campaign against "cosmopolitanism"
- the arrest of a number of military leaders
- persecution of former prisoners of war
- deportation of some peoples
- prohibition of creativity of some representatives of culture
- prohibition of the development of a number of scientific areas.
C4. Name the characteristic features of the life and way of life of Soviet people in the first years after the Second World War. Give examples of the situation of the population in the city and the countryside.
Characteristic features of the life and way of life of Soviet people:
- the establishment of a peaceful life, the return of soldiers from the front, many people from the evacuation;
– cancellation of overtime work, restoration of the 8-hour working day and holidays
– difficult working conditions during the restoration of the economy destroyed by the war
Shortage of food and manufactured goods
- Lack of housing.
In the town:
- poor equipment at enterprises, a large share of manual labor, low rates for its payment;
- life in old houses, most often in communal apartments, and sometimes in barracks;
- high prices in stores, supply of goods on cards, queues in stores;
- carrying out compulsory state loans among the population in the city;
- the abolition of cards in 1947.
In the village:
- lack of industrial goods, agricultural machinery;
- almost free work on collective farms due to the mandatory delivery of crops for state deliveries4
- forced reduction in the size of household plots of collective farmers;
- lack of passports for collective farmers and, consequently, the right to leave the village
C7. Official propaganda, many contemporaries and historians highly appreciated the repeated reduction in prices for consumer goods after the Second World War as Stalin's concern for workers.
What other assessments of the measures “to improve the living standards of the population” that were being carried out at that time do you know? Which assessment do you think is more convincing? Give the positions. Facts that support your chosen point of view.
Other ratings:
- price reduction did not have a significant impact on the life of the population;
- the events held were mainly ideological, propaganda purposes (in the conditions of difficult post-war life, it was necessary to confirm the achievements and advantages of socialism, it was important to appear before the countries of the world as a great power, constantly raising the standard of living of the people).
Arguments:
A. For the task :
- price reduction was carried out systematically: for seven years since 1947. it was produced seven times;
- in 1947. the card system was abolished;
Prices were falling for both food and manufactured goods.
B.For assessments outlined in part 1 of the content of the answer:
— the price reduction was not very significant;
- there were few goods in state stores, prices in commercial stores were unaffordable for the majority of the population;
- after the price reduction, as a rule, the prices for products manufactured at the enterprises went down.
C6. After the victorious end of the Second World War 1941-1945. in society spoke out on the liberalization of the regime, the rejection of repression, the implementation of economic reforms.
What opinions existed in the country's leadership on this issue? Name two opinions. What political course was eventually chosen? Give at least three facts to support your conclusion.
Opinions:
- proposals on using the experience of the NEP, reforming collective farmers, allowing small businesses, adopting a new Constitution
— substantiation of the course towards tightening the system, “tightening the screws”. A new round of repression. Strengthening collective farms, priority restoration and development of heavy industry, priority financing of the military-industrial complex.
It must be said that the second approach was taken as the basis of the post-war policy. And the facts can be named:
- the transfer of funds from the countryside to the city took on an expanded scale, purchase prices remained extremely low, taxes increased
- first of all, the restoration of heavy and defense industries was going on, the light and food industries and agriculture experienced an acute shortage of state funding
- repressions were resumed (against Soviet prisoners of war. "Leningrad case", "case of doctors")
- a tough ideological campaign was launched (decrees in the field of art and literature condemning the work of prominent poets, composers, cinematographers, discussions in science, culminating in the defeat of entire scientific areas, etc.)
C7. Explain what were the characteristic features of the social consciousness of the Soviet people in the first years after the Great Patriotic War.
general characteristics
- the victory changed many people's ideas about the world and their country
- it gave rise to critical views, doubts, especially among front-line soldiers
- in general, the "generation of winners" was seized with the joy of victory, enthusiasm, desire to restore peaceful life
- the main thing in moods: life should become better, freer, more secure
- this is a state of public consciousness - "democratic impulse of war"
What did people hope for?
- peasants - to change life on collective farms. Revival of the village on new foundations;
- workers - for free, well-paid work. Improving life in cities
- intelligentsia - on the possibility of free creativity
- the peoples of many - to soften the national policy
- prisoners of the Gulag - to the triumph of justice and speedy release
- youth - for education, creative work
disappointment
The Stalinist leadership chose the pre-war model of development: centralization, the priority of the development of heavy industry, the resumption of ideological control and repression.
C6. Consider the historical situation and complete the task.
After the end of the Second World War, the economic situation of the USSR was difficult, the Soviet leadership considered various ways to revive the economy.
What possible paths of industrial development have been put forward? List at least two of them. Which path was chosen and why? (Give one main reason.)
Proposed ways of industrial development:
— a group of leaders (A.A. Zhdanov, N.A. Voznesensky and others) considered it possible not to force the development of industry, counting on a post-war crisis in Western states;
— another group (L.P. Beria, L.P. Malenkov and others) took into account the strengthening of Western countries after the war. The US possession of the atomic bomb and offered the accelerated development of heavy industry, especially defense
The path of development and the reasons for choosing it can be named:
Stalin supported:
- the second path, which formed the basis for the preparation and implementation of the post-war five-year plan;
—the conformity of this direction with the basic doctrine of building communism on the basis of the predominant development of heavy industry.
C5. Compare the economic development of Russia in the 17th century. and 18th century
The general economic development in the 17th century can be called. and 18th century:
— extensive development of the economy;
– development of handicraft manufactory production
- the beginning of the formation of market relations and the all-Russian market.
Differences:
The initial stage of manufactory production | A significant increase in the number of manufactories, including peasant |
The predominance of manufactories using forced labor | The use of both the labor of "runaway and walking people" - civilian labor, and the labor of assigned and possessive peasants |
The beginning of the specialization of certain regions of the country and the growth of commodity circulation | Deepening the specialization of individual regions, including through the development of new territories |
Preservation of the natural isolation of the landlord and peasant economy | The destruction of the natural isolation of the landlord and peasant economy, the strengthening of their ties with the market |
Elements of the policy of mercantelism and protectionism | Strengthening the policy of state intervention in the economy, the policy of protectionism and mercantileism. |
C5. Compare the two stages of the industrial revolution in Russia in the 1840s-1850s. and in the 1861-1880s.
State what was common and what was different.
Common features:
- introduction of machines in production;
- the development of new modes of transport (railway construction, the development of steamship communications);
Gradual replacement of the labor of personally dependent workers by the labor of hired workers;
- insufficient equipment of agricultural production with machinery;
— preservation of crafts (fishing village);
- the use of non-economic methods of exploitation of workers.
Differences:
In the 1840-1850s. | In 1861-1880s. |
Insignificant share of wage labor in industry | Transition to the use of hired labor in industry |
The use of the labor of serfs in the landowners' manufactories | Transition to the use of hired labor in landowner manufactories |
The use of sessional labor. Ascribed peasants | Abolished the work of sessional, ascribed peasants |
Creation of new industries (engineering) |
|
Founding of large capitalist enterprises |
|
C6. In the spring of 1921, a decision was made to replace the surplus appraisal with a tax in kind. What other proposals for a way out of the crisis of the early 1920s? expressed during this period? Name at least two sentences. Explain why it was necessary to make radical changes in the economic and political course? Give at least three reasons for changing course. |
|
Other proposals made during this period can be named:
The tightening of the policy of "war communism", the expansion of violence, the creation of labor armies
- a complete rejection of "war communism" and the policy of a direct transition to communism. Replacing the surplus with a tax in kind, the introduction of the NEP
The following reasons can be given:
- an acute economic crisis caused by a long war
The crisis of the policy of "war communism"
- transition from war to peace
- peasant uprisings in the Tambov province, the Volga region, Siberia, the Urals, the Don, etc.
Discontent in the army, Kronstadt uprising
- Demonstrations of workers in Moscow. Petrograd, other cities
- revitalization of the activities of the Mensheviks, Socialist-Revolutionaries, and other political forces opposed to Bolshevism.
C5. Compare the main provisions of the economic programs of I.V. Stalin and N.I. Bukharin in 1928-1929. What was common in them (at least two characteristics), and what was different (at least three differences).
General characteristics:
— recognition of the possibility of building socialism in one single country
- recognition of the need for industrialization of the country
— recognition of the need for relatively high rates of industrialization
- recognition of the need to take measures in the countryside to overcome the phenomena caused by the crisis ("grain procurement crisis")
Differences:
I.V. Stalin's program | Program N.I. Bukharin |
High rates of industrialization must be ensured at any cost | The pace of industrialization should be determined in such a way as not to disturb the economic proportions, the proportions between industry and agriculture. |
The possibilities of individual peasant farms have been exhausted, the “grain procurement crisis” proves this conclusion | “grain procurement crisis” is the result of political mistakes, individual peasant farms will remain the basis of the agrarian economy for a long time |
Pursuing a policy of dispossession, tough measures against them | Individual peasant farms should be supported, peasant enterprise should be encouraged |
Carrying out collectivization on the basis of the speedy socialization of individual peasant farms | The creation of large farms is possible in the process of cooperating the village |
C4. Name at least three features of the situation in industry, agriculture, and the social sphere of Soviet society in the 1970s and early 1980s. Give at least three reasons that contributed to the folding of the features you noted.
Three features can be named:
— the predominance of the rates of extensive development of the economy
Slowdown in economic growth, formation of a “stagnation mechanism”
— decrease in qualitative indicators of economic development
Problems with the introduction of achievements of scientific and technological progress into production
- high costs for the development of the military-industrial complex
- residual principle of financing the social sphere, light industry
- shortage of consumer goods
— expansion of the “shadow economy” sphere
Any two reasons that contributed to their folding can be given:
— Preservation of the command economic system. Rejecting innovation, NTP
- the refusal of the country's leadership to continue the economic reforms begun in the mid-1960s.
The gap between the growth of monetary incomes of the population and the pace of economic development.
C6. In 1928-1929. There was a discussion about the pace of industrialization.
What other opinions on this issue were then expressed? Name two opinions. What approach to industrialization was ultimately chosen? Give at least three facts related to the course.
Opinions may be given:
- N.I. Bukharin spoke in favor of conducting I. taking into account the capabilities of the peasantry while maintaining the proportions between industry and agriculture
— I.V. Stalin, abandoning his previous position, insisted on speeding up industrialization at any cost, financing it by transferring it from the countryside to the city.
It should be said that a course for forced I. has been chosen, and the following facts related to its implementation can be named:
- in 1928, the planned figures were revised towards a sharp increase
- As a result of forced industrialization, the USSR came to second place in terms of industrial production, dozens of large industrial enterprises were built
- the planned growth plans were not achieved, there was a tendency for them to fall
- financing of I. was mainly carried out at the expense of the village, its price was collectivization, the backlog of light industry, the decline in the standard of living of the population, the use of free labor of prisoners
- during the years of industrialization in the USSR, a command economic system was finally formed, subordinated to directive planning. Completely state-owned, systematically resorting to non-economic methods of coercion.
C5. Compare the crisis of 1020-early 1921 and the grain procurement crisis of 1927-1928. What was common in them and what was different.
- in the leadership of the Communist Party and the state there were heated debates about the causes of the crisis
There were heated debates in the leadership of the Communist Party and the state about ways to overcome the crisis.
- the result of both crises was a radical change in economic policy (the rejection of "war communism" and the transition to the NEP; the rejection of the NEP and the transition to forced modernization)
Differences:
The crisis arose in the context of the transition from the First World War and the Civil War to peace The main manifestation of the crisis is mass demonstrations of peasants, widespread public discontent The main cause of the crisis is widespread dissatisfaction with the policy of "war communism" The crisis took place in the context of a sharp drop in industrial agricultural production, other economic indicators Overcoming the crisis was associated with the transition to the NEP, the introduction of free trade, the partial denationalization of industrial enterprises, the strengthening of economic management methods | The crisis arose in the conditions of peace and was not connected with the war The main manifestation of the crisis is the refusal of the peasants to supply grain and food at the purchase prices set by the state (“bread strike”). The main reason for the crisis is the economic contradictions of the NEP, in particular, the lag in the rate of development of industry from the rate of growth of agricultural production. The crisis occurs in the context of the completion of the recovery period, economic growth Overcoming the crisis was associated with the abandonment of the NEP, the strengthening of command and administrative methods of management, and the partial revival of the policy of "war communism". |
C6. In the late 1960s there was an actual rejection of the economic reform in 1965.
What opportunities for economic development existed at that time? Name at least two. What were the reasons for the economic difficulties of the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s? Give at least three reasons.
Possibilities can be mentioned:
- continuation of the reform, renewal of the economic mechanism, resolution of the independence of the enterprise, the use of material incentives, a combination of administrative regulation with economic
- widespread use of administrative forms of economic management, the actual preservation of the command economy
— deep reformation of the country's economic system, significant adjustment of the basic structures of the command economy (directive planning, centralized pricing, etc.)
Reasons can be given:
- Refusal to actively carry out and, all the more so, to deepen the economic reforms of the mid-1960s.
- the dominance of the command economic system
Extensive economic development
— difficulties in introducing the achievements of scientific and technical progress into the economy in a command system
— disproportions in the development of individual industries
— high level of expenses for the military-industrial complex
— the gap between the growth of monetary incomes of the population and the pace of economic development
— dependence on primary industries and world oil and gas prices
C6. Specify the characteristic features of the development of capitalism in Russia in 1861-1890.
The development of capitalism in industry:
- the industrial revolution began under serfdom, ended after the abolition of serfdom (by the end of the 19th century). There was a transition to the factory, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat were formed
- the acceleration of the pace of industrial development as a result of the reforms of 1861-1874.
- a combination of manufactories with developed forms of the capitalist economy (factory, banking system, advanced technology), the formation of monopolies
- development of means of communication, acceleration of commodity exchange
- the regulatory role of the state in the development of industry (loans, government orders, support for banks)
— participation of foreign capital in the Russian economy
The development of capitalism in agriculture:
- serf remnants in the countryside, peasant community
- social stratification of peasants (kulaks, farm laborers), entrepreneurship of peasants
- social contradictions, conflicts
- tougher exploitation of the masses, imperfection of labor legislation
the bourgeoisie had no political power
Conclusion: disproportions in socio-economic development (developed economy, backward village, inequality of social groups)
C7. Expand the goals and content of the economic reform in the USSR in the mid-1960s.
The main goals of the reform:
— an attempt to modernize the economic system of socialism
– introduction of elements of calculation while maintaining the administrative-command control system
The main content of the reform:
- liquidation of economic councils
— granting greater freedom of economic activity of enterprises
— reduction in the number of planned performance indicators for enterprises
– creation of material incentive funds at enterprises
— evaluation of economic activity based on sold products
– change in the system of planning the purchase of agricultural products
— increase in purchase prices for agricultural products
- removal of restrictions on private farms
Increasing investment in agriculture
Conclusion: the reform did not affect the foundations of the economic system of a socialist society
C6. Name the main phenomena and processes of the socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century.
New phenomena in the economy:
- the beginning of the spread of manufactory production (state and merchant manufactories)
- the transition of artisans to small-scale production (to the market, and not to order), the specialization of crafts in certain regions of Russia
- the emergence of all-Russian trade fairs (Arkhangelskaya, Irbitskaya, Makarievskaya)
- formation of the all-Russian market
- development of trade with the countries of Europe and the East, the policy of mercantilism
- the growth of cities, including fortress cities in the South Urals, Siberia, the economic development of new lands
Social development:
- changes in the social structure of society (strengthening of the nobility, its equalization in rights with the boyars, the growth of the population of cities, the emergence of the Cossacks)
- the final enslavement of the peasants by the Cathedral Code of 1649
- strengthening the tax burden
- Social performances (Salt and Copper riots, an uprising led by S. Razin) ; general definition of the 17th century - "rebellious age"
C5. Compare industrial production in Russia (types of enterprises, technical equipment, nature of the labor force used) from the beginning of the 19th century. Before the reforms of the 1860-1870s. and after the Great Reforms until the end of the Industrial Revolution. Indicate what was common (give at least three common characteristics) and what was different (give at least three differences)
General:
- the transition from manufactory to factory;
- gradual replacement of manual labor by machine;
- the transition to the work of hired workers;
- the connection of a significant part of the workers with the countryside.
Differences:
From the beginning of the 19th century to the reforms of the 1860s and 1870s. | After the Great Reforms until the end of the Industrial Revolution |
The beginning of the introduction of steam engines in enterprises In enterprises owned by the state. The labor of serfs-otkhodniks, possessive peasants, ascribed peasants was mainly used At enterprises owned by landowners, the labor of serfs prevailed, working out corvee in production, the labor of hired workers was used in some cases In manufactories founded by serf "capitalist" peasants, the labor of serfs (landlord peasants) was mainly used | Basically, the completion of the technical re-equipment of enterprises (wide use of steam engines) State-owned enterprises used the labor of hired workers At enterprises owned by landlords, the number of employees increased At the manufactories founded in the pre-reform period by serfs, the labor of hired workers was used. |
C5. Compare the content of the state policy towards the peasantry in 1921-1928. and in 1929-1933. Indicate what was common and what was different
General:
- one of the goals is the transformation of agriculture on socialist principles
- recognition of the economic advantages of large ones. Technically equipped farms over small peasant farms
- unequal exchange between town and country, prices for manufactured goods are higher than prices for agricultural products
Differences:
Politics in 1921-1928 | Politics 1929-1933 |
The main forms of agricultural products are tax in kind and public procurement Free trade in bread and other agricultural products Use of market methods and mechanisms Measures aimed at limiting the kulaks, mainly of an economic nature (taxes, deprivation of benefits, lowering purchase prices, etc.) Small individual farms are the basis of agricultural production | Abolition of free trade in bread and other agricultural products A rigid command and control system is being formed A policy of dispossession is being carried out, the elimination of the kulaks as a class Collective farms, state farms become monopoly producers of agricultural products |
C4. What were the most important achievements in the industrial development of the country in the 1930s? Give at least three examples. What problems (difficulties and negative consequences) of industrialization are you aware of? Name at least three difficulties and negative consequences.
Achievement examples:
- a modern industrial base was created, the country turned from an agrarian into an industrial-agrarian;
- electrification was carried out (the GOELRO plan, the first Soviet power plants), large power plants were built (Dneproges), an energy complex was created;
New industries have been developed - automotive, aircraft, chemical industry, etc.;
The construction of large industrial enterprises began in the regions of Siberia and the Far East
A powerful defense industry was created
- the technical and economic independence of the USSR was achieved
Problems (difficulties and negative consequences):
- I. was carried out in strict terms, with an excessive strain of human strength and was paid at a high price of deprivation of people, loss of health, etc.
- there were disproportions: mainly heavy industry developed, light and food industries lagged noticeably behind
- advancement in industrial development had little effect on improving the living conditions of people
- A command and control system has been established.
C7. Some historians, characterizing the social orientation of the reform of 1861, express the opinion that the reform of 1861 was carried out in the interests of the nobles.
What other judgment about the social orientation of the reform of 1861 do you know? Which statement do you think is the most convincing? Name at least three facts, provisions that can serve as an argument confirming your chosen judgment.
Other judgments:
- the reform of 1861 was carried out taking into account the interests of the peasants
- reform of 1861. It was carried out taking into account the interests of both nobles and peasants.
When choosing the judgment set out in the task:
- the nobles used the labor of temporary peasants;
- nobles received high redemption payments
- a significant part of the nobles received pieces of peasant land;
- Nobles remained a privileged class
When choosing other judgments not given in the task:
A. Reform of 1861 It was carried out taking into account the interests of the peasants:
- the peasants were freed from serfdom
- peasants got the right to dispose of their property
- peasants got the right to conclude deals (to act as a legal entity)
- peasants received the right to move to other classes (philistines, merchants)
- in some provinces, the peasants received part of the landlords' land.
B. Reform of 1861 It was carried out taking into account the interests of both nobles and peasants:
- the peasants were freed from serfdom;
- but the peasants were forced to pay redemption payments, to bear duties in favor of the landowners;
- the nobles were deprived of the opportunity to use the free labor of serfs;
- the nobles got the opportunity to direct the redemption payments for the restructuring of their own economy.
C5. Compare the state of agriculture in Russia from the beginning of the 19th century to the reforms of the 1860s-1870s. And after the reforms of the 1860-1870s. until the end of the 19th century. Indicate what was common (give at least three common characteristics) and what was different (give at least three differences).
What is common in the development of agriculture in pre-reform and post-reform Russia, for example:
- slow pace of formation of capitalist relations in agriculture;
- slow introduction of machine technology in agriculture;
- land shortage of peasants;
- traditional farming methods by the majority of peasants
the existence of a peasant community.
Differences:
Before the reforms of the 1860-1870s. | After the reforms of the 1860-1870s. until the end of the 19th century. |
The crisis of the feudal economic system The decline of the landed estates The use of the labor of serfs in the landowners' farms Insignificant use of hired workers in landowner farms Insignificant use of agricultural equipment, achievements of agronomy in the farms of landlords and peasants Growth of agricultural marketability Property stratification of the peasantry Otkhodnichestvo of quitrent peasants did not change their class affiliation | Restructuring of agriculture on capitalist foundations (while maintaining the remnants of serfdom) An increase in the number of bankrupt landlord farms The transition of the landowners to semi-serf methods of exploitation Wider use of hired labor in the landlords' farms Increased use of agricultural technology and achievements of agronomy Accelerating the growth of agricultural marketability Acceleration of the social stratification of the peasantry The departure of peasants freed from serfdom to work could change their class affiliation |
C5. Compare the reforms of the Chosen Rada and the policy of Ivan's oprichnina Grozny.
Point out what was common and what was different.
General:
The transformations were carried out at the will of the king;
The transformations were aimed at strengthening the central authority and the power of the king;
The transformations were aimed at solving urgent foreign policy problems (acquisition of access to the sea by Russia, protection of the country's territories from the raids of the Crimean and Kazan khans).
Differences:
Reforms of the Elected Rada | Oprichna politics |
The path of slow, gradual transformation, designed for centralization over a long period of time The transformations are aimed at creating a class-representative monarchy in Russia The desire to achieve agreement between the interests of the state and society The desire for consolidation between various upper groups of Russian society Foreign policy successes: the accession to Russia of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates The reforms contributed to the improvement of the internal situation in the country, the strengthening of the state apparatus, the army, and economic revival. | Violent methods of centralization The transformations are aimed at strengthening the autocratic monarchy in Russia with unlimited royal power. The split in society Mass repressions, disgrace, terror, land confiscations The protracted Livonian War was lost, defeat in 1571. From the Crimean Khan The oprichnina brought the country to the brink of a national catastrophe, led to an economic and political crisis and, as a result, to the Troubles of the early 17th century. |
C4. Name at least three reforms of the Chosen Rada. Write the names of three leaders of the Chosen Rada.
reforms:
- convocation in 1549 of the first Zemsky Sobor
- adoption of the new Sudebnik (1550)
- cancellation of feedings
– improvement of the activities of orders, central executive authorities
- restriction of locality
- the creation of the archery army
- the adoption of the "Code of Service", which strengthened the local noble army
– changing the procedure for taxation, establishing a unit of taxation (sokha) and the amount of duties levied from it (tax)
- the adoption of "Stoglav", which regulated the activities of the church and aimed at the unification of rites.
Figures of the Chosen Rada:
- Prince A.M. Kurbsky
- Metropolitan Macarius
Archpriest Sylvester
- clerk I.M. Viskovaty
A.F. Adashev
C4. Name at least three signs of a radical fracture during the Second World War. Name at least three battles and military operations of this period.
Signs of a radical change during the Second World War:
- the transition of the strategic initiative to the Armed Forces of the USSR
- ensuring the reliable superiority of the Soviet defense industry and the rear economy over the economy of fascist Germany
- achievement by the Soviet Union of military-technical superiority in supplying the army with the latest types of weapons
- qualitative changes in the balance of power in the international arena in favor of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition
Battles of this period:
— Battle of Stalingrad
- Battle of the Orlovo-Kursk Bulge
- forcing the Dnieper, the liberation of the Left-Bank Ukraine, Donbass, Kiev
- breaking the blockade of Leningrad
- offensive operations in the Caucasus.
C4. Name at least three results of the Second World War 1941-1945. and at least three operations of the final stage of the war.
Provisions characterizing the results of the Second World War:
- the anti-Hitler coalition won, the USSR defended its state independence, the statehood of the peoples of Europe occupied by Germany was restored.
- Fascist Germany and Japan suffered a military-political defeat, and the anti-democratic regimes in these countries, as well as in Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and others, fell.
Fascism and Nazism were condemned as an ideology of violence, aggression, racial superiority
- in Europe and the Far East there have been some territorial changes. In particular, Poland received Silesia, the USSR - East Prussia, the whole of Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands;
The prestige of the USSR grew, its international influence increased, a system of socialist states under its direct control began to form in Central and South-Eastern Europe
- the influence of the United States, which has established itself as the leaders of the Western world, has increased
- a powerful impetus was given to the national liberation movement, the resolution of the colonial system began
Battles of this period:
- lifting the blockade of Leningrad
- liberation of Belarus (operation "Bagration")
- Lvov-Sandomierz operation
Vistula-Oder operation
- East Prussian operation
— Berlin operation.
C7. Describe the causes, scale and significance of the partisan movement during the Second World War.
Reasons for the emergence and spread of the partisan movement:
- the desire of people to protect their land, freedom and independence
- resistance to the occupation regime, the “new order”, the system of mass extermination of people in concentration camps, ghettos, and forced deportation to Germany for forced labor established by the Nazis
- support by Soviet state and party bodies of partisan struggle in the occupied territories
The scale of the partisan movement, the composition of the participants:
- partisan groups, detachments arose throughout the territory occupied by the Nazis
— fighters and commanders of the Red Army who were surrounded, prisoners of war who fled from the camps, young people who were fleeing from deportation to Germany joined the partisan detachments
- by the end of 1941, over 3.5 thousand partisan detachments and groups were operating in the occupied territories, in the spring of 1942. 11 partisan formations and detachments were created, their interaction with the troops of the Red Army
The meaning of the partisan movement:
- the actions of the partisans had a significant impact on the course of many military operations
- to fight partisans and protect communications, the invaders were forced to keep dozens of divisions in the rear
- intelligence data collected by partisans and underground workers was of great importance when planning military operations of the Red Army
- the exploits of the partisans were highly appreciated, many of them were awarded the highest military orders (including the leaders of the partisan formations S. Kovpak, S. Rudnev, P. Vershigora, P. Masherov, etc.)
C4. Specify and briefly describe the background and main events of the Troubles of the late 16th - early 18th centuries.
Prerequisites for Troubles:
- the crisis of the Rurik dynasty (weak Tsar Fedor Ivanovich, drama in Uglich), weakening of the central government
- political struggle of contenders for power, zemstvo election to the kingdom of Boris Godunov
- exacerbation of social discontent due to the policy of enslaving the peasants, increased tax oppression, as well as crop failures and famine.
Unrest and flight of peasants
Trouble Events:
- 1605 - the beginning of the Troubles: the appearance of False Dmitry 1, his campaign against Moscow, "ascension to the throne";
1606 - boyar conspiracy, the overthrow of the impostor, the election of Vasily Shuisky to the kingdom
The uprising under the leadership of I. Bolotnikov
- 1607 - False Dmitry 2 ("Tushinsky thief")
- Polish-Swedish intervention, siege of Smolensk
- 1610 - "seven boyars"
- 1611-1612 - people's militias (Dmitry Pozharsky, Kuzma Minin), liberation of Moscow
- 1613 - Zemsky Sobor, the election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom.
C7. According to historians, the main cause of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century was the dynastic crisis, the suppression of the Rurik dynasty.
What other point of view on the question of the causes of the Time of Troubles do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three facts and statements that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
The following alternative point of view can be given:
The turmoil was a manifestation of a deep internal crisis, one of the long-term consequences of the oprichnina and the defeat in the Livonian War. Which entailed the ruin of the economy, the growth of social ferment, widespread discontent; the crisis was exacerbated by the intervention of outside forces.
A .
- the Rurik dynasty was cut short with the death in Uglich of Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of Ivan the Terrible, in which many accused Boris Godunov, who was subsequently proclaimed tsar
- the beginning of the Troubles was the performance of an impostor, under the name of the escaped Tsarevich Dmitry, who seized the Moscow throne
- the idea of returning to power a "miraculously saved" representative of the legitimate dynasty was one of the most popular during the Time of Troubles
- the end of the Time of Troubles was the election by the Zemsky Sobor, the most representative in the history of Russia, of a new tsar, who founded a new dynasty.
B.
- The Troubles began in the conditions of a severe economic crisis, a famine caused by a crop failure in 1601-1603.
— Troubles was a complex social phenomenon, the driving forces of which were diverse social conflicts between different groups of the population
Questions were resolved during the Time of Troubles. Associated with the completion of the process of centralization, the formation of a single state
- internal confrontation was intertwined with the intervention of external forces behind the opposing sides, which eventually acquired the form of foreign intervention.
C7. A number of historians sharply negatively assess the consequences of the political fragmentation of Russia in the 12th and early 13th centuries.
What other point of view on the issue of the consequences of political fragmentation do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Expand and cite at least three facts and statements that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
Alternative point of view:
Political fragmentation was an inevitable phenomenon, along with serious negative consequences, it also had positive consequences.
A. When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
- weakened the defense of Russia in front of external enemies
Princely strife intensified
- Russian princes could not agree on joint actions even on the eve of the invasion of Batu, which led to the establishment of more than two hundred years of the Horde yoke.
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
- in the conditions of fragmentation, the economy of individual principalities and lands developed rapidly
- in the conditions of fragmentation, the culture of Russian principalities and lands flourished
- the collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of the principles that united the Russian lands (the seniority of the Grand Duke of Kiev was formally recognized; church and linguistic unity was preserved; lands that were part of Ancient Russia).
C6. In the middle of the 13th c. The Grand Duke of Vladimir Alexander Nevsky sought to maintain peaceful relations with the Horde khans, avoid conflicts and not give rise to new invasions.
Name at least two attempts by the Russian principalities and lands in the middle of the 13th century to pursue a policy different from the one described above in relation to the Horde. What reasons predetermined the choice made by Prince Alexander Nevsky? Give at least three reasons.
Attempts:
- at the beginning of the 50s. In the 13th century, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei Yaroslavich, in alliance with Daniil of Galicia and the Prince of Tver, prepared a campaign against the Horde and was defeated
- in the same years, Daniil Galitsky tried to resist the Horde, but was defeated and was forced to recognize dependence on the Horde khans
In 1257, the anti-Horde uprising in Novgorod was brutally suppressed.
Causes:
- devastated and fragmented Russia did not have sufficient strength to resist the Horde
— Al. Nevsky sought to concentrate the main forces on countering the aggression of the crusaders from the West - the policy chosen by Al. Nevsky allowed the Russian lands to restore the destroyed agriculture, crafts, trade
- it allowed to avoid new devastating invasions of the Horde armies.
C6. Consider the historical situation and complete the task.
Khan Batu, after the defeat of Russian cities and lands, imposed tribute on them. The Mongols never “fought” Novgorod, but the Novgorodians paid tribute to the Golden Horde. Why did the Mongols "not fight" Novgorod? Give at least two reasons. Why did the Novgorodians have to pay tribute to the Golden Horde? Give at least three sentences.
The Mongols "did not fight" Novgorod, because:
- Batu's army suffered significant losses, was weakened by the resistance of Russia;
- wooded and swampy terrain and spring thaw created great difficulties for the Mongolian horsemen
Judgments that the Novgorodians were forced to pay tribute in favor of the Horde, because:
- The Horde sent its "numeraries" to Novgorod for the census and taxation of the Novgorodians;
- Prince Al. Nevsky believed that it was not yet possible to challenge the Horde of Russia;
- under the threat of the appearance of the Horde troops, the Novgorodians were forced to come to terms with the demands of the Horde and agree to the payment of tribute.
C5. Compare two forms of land ownership - patrimony and estate. Indicate what was common (at least two common features), and what was different (at least three differences)
Are common:
- were forms of feudal land tenure;
- consisted of a master's economy and a peasant holding.
Differences:
C6. Name the main stages and key events in the formation and development of the Old Russian state.
Stages of development of the Old Russian state:
- 9-10 centuries. - the unification of the East Slavic tribes, the formation of a single state;
- the end of the 10th-11th centuries - the heyday of the ancient Russian state (the creation of a system of power and military organization)
The end of the 11th - 1st half of the 12th century - the beginning of the collapse of the state, fragmentation, princely strife.
Key events and phenomena:
- prerequisites for the formation of the state (decomposition of the tribal community, the allocation of tribal nobility, the development of economic and trade relations, the formation of intertribal alliances, the desire to organize a rebuff to enemies)
- chronicle information about the calling of the Varangians
- Norman theory of the formation of the ancient Russian state
- the activities of the first Rurikovich, the subjugation of the East Slavic tribes, the unification of Kiev and Novgorod.
- baptism of Russia under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, adoption of Christianity
- the reign of Yaroslav the Wise: the formation of a political system, the creation of a code of laws
- the threat of fragmentation, attempts to maintain unity; Vladimir Monomakh.
C6. in the middle of the 17th century, under the leadership of Patriarch Nikon, reforms were carried out in the Russian Orthodox Church.
What proposals for reforms, different from the position of Patriarch Nikon, were made at that time? Name two sentences. What were the consequences of Nikon's church reforms? List at least three consequences.
Offers other than Nikon's positions:
- when carrying out the unification of church rites and liturgical books, rely not on Greek, but on ancient Russian samples
Consequences:
- a long dispute about the supremacy of secular and spiritual power, was resolved in favor of secular power, an important step was taken towards the subordination of the church to the state
- a sharp struggle between supporters and opponents of Nikon and his reforms led to a split in the Russian Orthodox Church
- the Old Believer movement became one of the forms of social protest in the second half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century.
C5. Compare the positions of Patriarch Nikon and Archpriest Avvakum on the issue of the goals and content of church reforms, Ser. 17th century. What was common in them, and what was different.
General characteristics:
- recognition of the need for church reforms
- recognition of the need to unify church rites and liturgical books
- recognition of the need to fight for the correction of the morals of the clergy, the fight against everything that undermines the authority of the clergy.
Differences:
Position of Patriarch Nikon | Position of Archpriest Avvakum |
Correction of books to carry out according to Greek models Introduce a single rite of worship according to Greek models Correction of all church altars and iconostases in accordance with Greek models The assertion of the supremacy of spiritual power over secular power in religious and moral matters Expansion of international relations of the ROC, especially with the South Slavic peoples | Correction of books according to ancient Russian samples Unification of the rite of worship on the basis of the rite that developed in Ancient Russia after the adoption of Christianity Following the patterns established in Russian icon painting Recognition of the Tsar as the only defender of Orthodoxy, the guardian of the Orthodox kingdom Refusal to expand international relations, strict adherence to the concept of "Moscow is the third Rome" |
C4. Name at least three reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church in the middle of the 17th century and at least three consequences of the transformations carried out by Patriarch Nikon.
Three goals of the ROC reforms:
- unification of the system of church rites, the order of worship, liturgical books
- the fight against phenomena that undermined the spiritual authority of church ministers (drunkenness, money-grubbing, illiteracy of priests, etc.)
- counteraction to the penetration of secular principles into the spiritual life of society
- transformation of the church in the context of strengthening church-political ties between Russia and the South Slavic countries.
Two consequences of the transformations:
- the reform led to the unification of church rites and liturgical books, contributed to the strengthening of the spiritual, ideological integrity of Russian Orthodoxy
- a long dispute about the supremacy of secular and spiritual power was resolved in favor of secular power, an important step was taken towards the subordination of the church to the state
- a sharp struggle between supporters and opponents of Nikon and his reforms led to a split in the Russian Orthodox Church
- the Old Believer movement became one of the forms of social protest in the 2nd half of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th centuries.
C4. Name the main stages in the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow and give a brief description of each of them.
Four stages of the unification of Russian lands:
- the end of the 13th - 1st half of the 14th centuries
- 2nd half of the 14th century
- 1st half of the 15th century.
- 2nd half of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century
Brief description of each stage:
Stage 1: the formation and beginning of the rise of the Moscow principality, the struggle between Moscow and Tver, the successes of the Moscow princes in the struggle for a label for a great reign, the transformation of Moscow into the church center of Russian lands
- Stage 2: Battle of Kulikovo, the first defeat in the battle with the combined forces of the Russian principalities and lands, the approval of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russian lands
- stage 3: feudal war,
Stage 4: the final stage of unification, liberation from the Horde yoke, the emergence of a single Russian state.
C 7. In the works of historians, there are different points of view on the approach taken by Ivan 3 in 1478. with the aim of liquidating the Novgorod Republic. So, N.M. Karamzin believed that Ivan 3 "was worthy to crush the cunning liberty of Novgorod, for he wanted a solid good for Russia"
What other point of view on this issue do you know? Which point of view do you find more convincing? Name the facts, provisions that can serve as arguments confirming your chosen point of view.
Point of view:
- the death of Novgorod liberty was the result of brutal violence from outside, the result of the Muscovite conquest, as a result of which the unique Novgorod statehood was abolished.
A.When choosing the point of view given in the task:
- there was a process of collecting Russian lands, the Moscow prince Ivan 3. performed the task of creating a single state, uniting the lands around Moscow;
- the annexation of a vast territory expanded the borders of the Russian state
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
- as a result of military campaigns in 1471. and 1478. Novgorod lands were annexed to Moscow by force;
- all attributes of Novgorod independence were eliminated
- instead of posadniks, the city was ruled by the governors of the Grand Duke;
- the political structure of Moscow land was extended to Novgorod the Great.
C6. In 1956 First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev spoke at the 20th Party Congress with a report "On the cult of personality and its consequences", in which he condemned the Stalinist repressions as alien to the socialist system and stated that they did not affect the essence of socialism created in the USSR.
What other opinions exist on this issue? List at least two opinions. Give at least three facts related to the policy of de-Stalinization during the "thaw".
Opinions may be given:
- the society built in the USSR in the 1930s is not socialist, it is a totalitarian society
- Stalinist repressions were a direct continuation of the policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet state, which was carried out after the October Revolution of 1917.
- Stalinist repressions were caused by a fierce class struggle, the resistance of anti-socialist principles, and built in the 1930s. society is a society of real socialism
- adoption of the resolution "On the cult of personality and its consequences" in July 1956;
- the beginning of the rehabilitation of victims of repression;
- the rehabilitation of a number of peoples who were deported in the 1930s and 1940s.
- condemnation of the personality cult of I.V. Stalin at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU (1961)
— publication of literary works containing criticism of Stalinist repressions (“One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn, “For Far and Far” by A.T. Tvardovsky, etc.)
- relative liberalization of public life (inconsistent, combined with deviations from the policy of de-Stalinization)
C4. Name at least three events held in the USSR during the "thaw" in the field of economics and social policy. Give at least three provisions that reflect the significance of the "thaw" for the national history of the 20th century.
Three events of the "thaw" period can be named:
— maintaining the course for the priority development of heavy and defense industries
– intensification of efforts aimed at introducing the achievements of science and technology into production
- the transition from the sectoral principle of managing the national economy to the territorial one (creation of economic councils)
Extending the passport system to collective farmers
— streamlining pension provision, lowering the retirement age
— development of virgin and fallow lands
- restriction of household plots
- carrying out monetary reform. Increase in retail prices.
Provisions reflecting the meaning of "thaw":
The first attempt was made to de-Stalinize Soviet society
— the “thaw” was the first attempt to reform the social system that had taken shape in the Soviet Socialist Republic in the 1930s, freeing it from the most odious elements (mass repressions, terror, personality cult) while maintaining the one-party system, the leading role of the CPSU, public property and central planning, command economy
The policy of the "thaw" was not consistent, holistic, but it made significant changes in the spiritual atmosphere as a step towards freedom. To socialism, cleansed of deformations and distortions, to civic responsibility, independence, and initiative.
C7. A number of historians argue that the "thaw" policy failed and did not have a significant impact on the development of the country.
What other point of view on the question of the meaning of "thaw" do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three facts and statements that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
An alternative point of view given in the assignment:
- the "thaw" was the first attempt to reform the social system that had developed in the USSR in the 1930s, freeing it from the most odious elements; it was not consistent, integral, but it introduced significant changes in the spiritual atmosphere as a step towards freedom, towards socialism, cleansed of deformations and distortions, towards civic responsibility, independence, and initiative.
A
- de-Stalinization was not completed, in the mid-1960s. it was stopped, attempts were made to review the decision of the 20th Congress of the CPSU;
- N.S. Khrushchev was the only Soviet leader dismissed from the post of First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU by the decision of the party plenum, which can be considered a confirmation of the collapse of his policy.
- in the mass consciousness and in scientific research in the 1960s-1980s. The “thaw” was critically assessed, more negatively than positively.
B . When choosing an alternative point of view:
— hundreds of thousands of victims of Stalinist repressions were rehabilitated
- for the first time, the society was told about the illegal nature of the repressions of the 1930-1940s.
— the “thaw” formed the generation of the “sixties”, who preserved its spirit and values
- important reforms were carried out in the social sphere (mass housing construction, improvement of the pension system)
- during the years of the “thaw”, the first artificial earth satellite and the first manned space flight were launched.
C7. Offset N.S. Khrushchev in 1964. from all leading positions, some historians call the "palace coup".
What other judgment about this event do you know? Which point of view do you find more convincing? Justify your opinion with facts, provisions (at least three) from the history of the 1960s.
Alternative judgment:
- displacement of N.S. Khrushchev was dictated not only by the dissatisfaction of a small group of party leaders, but also by the socio-economic situation that prevailed in the USSR in the early 1960s, the loss of N.S. Khrushchev of authority and support in society
A . When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
- N.S. Khrushchev was removed from power as a result of a conspiracy of representatives of the top of the party and state leadership;
- N.S. Khrushchev affected the interests of the nomenklatura with numerous transformations of the governing bodies and intra-party reshuffling of personnel;
- the actions of N.S. Khrushchev, from the point of view of the nomenklatura, were often too independent.
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
The growing dissatisfaction of the population of the USSR with the transformations of N.S. Khrushchev was an objective prerequisite for his dismissal, since:
- many reforms of N.S. Khrushchev failed or gave only a short-term effect;
- the intelligentsia reproached N.S. Khrushchev in the limitations of democratization. Inconsistent de-Stalinization, attacks on the work of a number of cultural representatives;
- the military were dissatisfied with the inconsistency of foreign policy and the reduction of the army;
— despite many positive measures in the social sphere. The standard of living of the population was declining (increase in prices for meat and milk, lack of grain in the country, etc.).
C4. Expand the characteristic features of the socio-economic policy in the USSR in the second half of the 1950s - the first half of the 1960s.
General characteristics of the period:
- attempts to reform various spheres of life during the leadership of N.S. Khrushchev - liberalization, "thaw";
Industry policy:
— measures to decentralize management
Liquidation of branch ministries, formation of economic councils
- entry into the era of scientific and technological revolution - the priority development of nuclear energy. Chemical industry, etc.
Agricultural policy:
- Consolidation of collective farms, transformation of a part of collective farms into state farms
— increase in purchase prices for agricultural products;
— development of virgin and fallow lands.
Social politics:
– increase in salaries and pensions, lowering the retirement age
Deployment of mass housing construction
- shortening of the working day. Issuance of passports to collective farmers
- increase in purchase prices for products.
Conclusion: inconsistency and inconsistency of policy; elements of subjectivism and administration; crisis phenomena in the economy that gave rise to discontent in different groups of the population.
C5. Compare the cultural policies of the Communist Party and the Soviet state in the 1920s. and 1930s. What was common in them and what was different.
General:
as general characteristics of the policy of the communist party and the state in relation to culture can be named:
- recognition of the eradication of illiteracy, the development of schools and education. the formation of a new Soviet intelligentsia by the most important political tasks (the concept of the cultural revolution)
- recognition of culture and art as an important means of educating the masses in the Communist spirit (culture as part of the general party cause)
— Comm. Party and the Soviet state put culture under strict control
- bringing to the fore in the evaluation of works of art and culture the principle of party spirit.
Differences:
In school education, there is room for experimentation and innovation (non-assessment learning, team method, etc.) The possibility of developing various artistic styles and trends in art The existence of various creative organizations and associations State support for proletarian art, organizations built on its principles, separation from them of the so-called sympathizers, fellow travelers, etc. | In school education - the restoration of traditional forms of education, the condemnation of experiments as an excess. The establishment of socialist realism as the only official artistic method in art Creation of unified creative organizations Creation of unified creative organizations, where all artists who shared the platform of Soviet power were accepted |
C5. Compare the main features of the development of culture in the USSR in 1945-1953. and 1953-1964s. Point out what was common and what was different.
General:
- direct supervision of the activities of the creative intelligentsia by party organs;
The pressure of the official ideology (to varying degrees) on the creativity of representatives of culture;
The predominance in the work of the officially approved method of socialist realism
Persecution (to varying degrees) of cultural figures.
Differences:
Severe ideological pressure from party organs Adoption of party resolutions with sharp criticism of the work of a number of writers. Cinematographers, musicians, theater workers, etc. Repressions against representatives of culture Introduction of bans on the publication and performance of works by some cultural figures The fight against "idolatry before the West" | "thaw" in culture. Weakening the ideological pressure Condemnation of the decisions adopted under Stalin (with certain reservations) Rehabilitation of a number of previously convicted cultural figures, restoration of the good name of its representatives. Cancellation of the ban on the performance and publication of previously banned works (including about the life of Gulag prisoners) Increase in the number of periodicals Opening of new theaters Expansion of cultural ties with foreign cultural figures (holding exhibitions of works of foreign art, the world festival of youth and students, the international competition of performers named after P.I. Tchaikovsky) |
C4. Describe the historical conditions of development and the main achievements of Russian culture in the 14th-16th centuries.
Historical conditions:
- the revival of the economy, the economic recovery in the Russian lands
- creation of a unified state
- the development of national identity, the struggle for independence from the Horde.
– development of cultural contacts (activities of Italian architects in Russia)
Main cultural achievements:
- folklore
- Literature (tales of the Kulikovo cycle, Walking, lives, teachings - Chet'i Menaia, Domostroy)
- the emergence of journalism (Ivan Peresvetov, the writings of Ivan the Terrible)
The Beginning of Printing (Ivan Fedorov)
- an increase in the number of schools and colleges at churches and monasteries
- the development of stone architecture - the construction of the Moscow Kremlin. Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral), tented style
- Painting: frescoes (Novgorod and others, cities), iconography - Theophan the Greek, Andrey Rublev, Dionysius
— The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in the spiritual life and culture of the 14th-16th centuries.
C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.
Until the early 1920s. Soviet Russia was in international isolation. The governments of European countries and the United States were in no hurry to diplomatically recognize the Bolsheviks. And the Bolsheviks built their policy based on the idea of a world communist revolution. In 1922 Two things happened that started the change.
Name these events. List at least three reasons. Allowing our country to emerge from international isolation.
1. Events can be named:
- participation of Soviet Russia in the Genoa Conference;
- signing of an agreement with Germany in Rapallo.
- Reasons can be given:
To interest foreign states in the development of economic relations with Russia;
- the end of the Civil War;
- the transition of our country to the New Economic Policy, which was perceived by many as evidence of serious changes in the country's domestic policy;
- to interest foreign political and business circles in solving the problem of royal debts and compensating for losses incurred as a result of nationalization.
C4. What are the main directions of development and achievements of Soviet culture in the 1920s and 1930s?
The general direction of development is the “cultural revolution” (its tasks)
Ideology:
- the establishment of communist ideology in all spheres of spiritual life and culture
- class approach to culture. Promotion of slogans for the destruction of "bourgeois" culture and the establishment of a new one. "proletarian" culture (Proletkult and other organizations)
— persecution of non-Marxist concepts in social science. The expulsion of many philosophers and publicists ("philosophical ship")
Education:
- the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of educational programs. New schools, workers' schools
- reform of primary and secondary schools. Transforming them into a free unified labor school
- the formation of a new intelligentsia "from the workers and peasants"
Literature and art:
- the diversity of artistic movements and groups in literature and art in the 1920s. the formation of revolutionary art (poster, satire)
- the emergence of new heroes in literature (the works of V. Mayakovsky, I. Babel, A. Fadeev, D. Furmanov, M. Sholokhov, etc.).
The development of Soviet cinema (S. Eisenstein)
The establishment of socialist realism in the 1930s as the mainstream
State policy towards the church:
Separation of the church from the state, the fight against the religious worldview and customs, the closure and destruction of churches.
C4. Reveal the features of cultural and spiritual life in the USSR in the second half of the 1950s-first half of the 1960s.
General characteristics of this period:
- years. When the country was led by N.S. Khrushchev, are characterized by the beginning of liberalization in various spheres of society
- these are the years of the "thaw" in the spiritual life, culture
The main events and phenomena of cultural life:
- democratic changes;
– rehabilitation of previously convicted representatives of the scientific and creative intelligentsia
- the emergence of new literary and artistic publications (magazines "New World", "Youth")
— Creation of new theatres-studios (Taganka Theatre, Sovremennik)
Removal of bans on the publication and performance of a number of literary and musical works that have been criticized in previous decades
— reforming the education system
– expansion of contacts between representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia and cultural masters of foreign countries
— preservation of the party ideological dictate
Cultural policy is based on the thesis of building a communist society
- condemnation of B. Pasternak
Conclusion:
The development of culture in the period under review was contradictory.
C4. Specify the characteristic features of the democratization of culture in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Development of education:
- development of secondary and higher education - an increase in the number of gymnasiums and colleges. Universities. The emergence of women's courses (these forms of education remained difficult for representatives of the unprivileged classes)
– creation of a network of primary zemstvo schools
- opening of schools, Sunday schools for workers
Cultural and educational institutions
— expansion of the network of public libraries
- the foundation of museums, the opening of museums for public visits (P.M. Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow, etc.)
The development of publishing, journalism (an increase in the number of newspapers and magazines, the release of inexpensive publications available to a wide range of readers - I.D. Sytin)
Growth of interest in the life of the people
- the appearance of the image of "a man from the people" in works of art
– interest in folk art, reflection of its motives in art
— development of traditional art crafts (Dymkovo, Gzhel, Khokhloma, Pavlovsky Posad)
Conclusion: the beginning process of democratization did not eliminate class distinctions in cultural life
C7. A number of historians believe that Catherine II's domestic policy was consistently feudal.
What other point of view on the question of the nature of the policy of Catherine II do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three facts and statements that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
- the policy of Catherine II was based on the principles of enlightened absolutism. It was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia.
A . When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
- the autocratic principle of governance, serfdom, the estate system remained unshakable
- extension of serfdom to new territories
- a decree on the right of landlords to exile peasants to hard labor without trial or investigation
- a decree forbidding serfs to file complaints against landlords
B.When choosing an alternative point of view:
- convening and activities of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768)
— reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire
- adoption of the Charter to the nobility (1785)
- adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities (1785)
- adoption of the manifesto on freedom of enterprise (1775)
— reforms in the field of school education.
C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.
In 1855, when Alexander 2 came to the throne, the feudal management system was in a state of crisis.
What demands on the agrarian question were put forward by representatives of social thought, different classes? How, in the provisions of the Peasant Reform of 1861. reflected the desire of Alexander 2 to reconcile the interests of different classes?
Requirements of social thought, different classes:
A) the demands of representatives of the "protective" direction (M.P. Pogodin): abolish serfdom;
B) representatives of the liberal opposition (K.D. Kavelin, B.N. Chicherin) advocated:
- the abolition of serfdom;
- obtaining land for ransom by peasants;
- preservation of landownership;
C) representatives of the radical opposition (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov) demanded:
- abolish serfdom;
- transfer the land to the peasants free of charge;
D) the peasants hoped:
- get rid of serfdom;
- get land free of charge;
- increase your land holdings.
Alexander 2 tried to reconcile the interests of different classes by the fact that:
- peasants received personal freedom;
The peasants received land. But for ransom;
- a temporarily liable state of peasants was introduced (the free labor of temporarily liable peasants was beneficial to the landowners);
- part of the peasant lands (cuts) passed to the landowners;
- the system of working off, largely caused by the lack of land of the peasants, provided the landowners' farms with labor.
What proposals for further actions of the government were received in the spring of 1881? Emperor Alexander 3? Name two sentences. Name the course chosen by the emperor and give three measures that implemented it.
Offers received by Alexander 3:
- continuation of the reforms of the previous reign, the creation of a legislative body for the development of bills with the involvement of elected representatives from zemstvos (loris-Melikov's project);
- strengthening of autocratic power, the inviolability of the autocratic principle of government, the rejection of the "extremes" of the reforms of the 1860s and 1870s, the tightening of police measures to combat the revolutionary movement (the position of K.P. Pobedonostsev)
It is said about the choice by Alexander of the 3rd course to strengthen the autocracy and the events are named:
— promulgation of the Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy
Restoration of the omnipotence of censorship. Persecution of the democratic press
— limiting the autonomy of universities
- the introduction of the institution of zemstvo chiefs to control the bodies of peasant self-government
— rejection of the principle of all estates in activities in the activities of zemstvos and city dumas
- limiting the powers of zemstvos, strengthening control over them by governors
- restriction of the principles of publicity in legal proceedings, the irremovability of judges.
C7. Historian and public figure B.N. Kavelin believed that during the reign of Alexander 3, a consistently reactionary crisis was carried out: "even what was spared by the iron hand of Nicholas 1 was crushed by the thoughtless hand of his grandson."
What point of view on the question of the nature of the policy of Alexander 3 do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three facts and provisions that can serve as arguments. Confirming your point of view.
The following point of view, an alternative to the one given by you:
- the policy of Alexander 3 was not reactionary, but conservative, it relied on Russian historical traditions and contributed to the consolidation of society, strengthening the economy. Reducing the threat posed by the growth of the revolutionary movement.
A. When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
— promulgation of the Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy
— restoration of the omnipotence of censorship. Persecution of the democratic press
— limiting the autonomy of universities
— the introduction of the institution of zemstvo chiefs to control the bodies of peasant self-government
— rejection of the principle of all estates in the activities of zemstvos and city dumas
— limiting the powers of the zemstvos. Strengthening control over them by governors
— limiting the principles of publicity in legal proceedings. Irremovability of judges
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
— Decree on the transformation of a temporarily liable state and on the reduction of redemption payments
— establishment of the Peasants' Bank
— decrees aimed at preserving and strengthening the peasant community
— implementation of financial reforms that prepared the conditions for financial reform S.Yu. Witte
— the adoption of laws that laid the foundations of labor legislation (prohibition of the labor of children under 12 years of age; prohibition of night work of women and minors; determination of the conditions of employment and the procedure for terminating contracts between workers and entrepreneurs)
— high rates of economic development, rapid growth of industry, transport, domestic and foreign trade.
C4. Name at least three conditions for carrying out a redemption operation under the reform of 1861. Indicate at least three consequences of the buyout operation for the socio-economic development of the country.
Three conditions for a redemption transaction:
- for the land you need to pay a certain amount to the landowner; the size of the quitrent was taken as the basis. Which the serf paid to the landowner (the ransom should have been equal to such an amount, which, being put in the bank, would give the cost of the previous quitrent as interest on it)
Prior to the redemption operation, the peasants had to perform in favor of the landowner all the previous duties (temporarily liable state)
- the state paid 75-80% of the redemption amount to the landowner immediately, the rest was paid by the peasant. The peasant had to make up for the costs of the state by contributing to the treasury the amount of the loan from interest for 49 years.
Three consequences of a buyout operation:
- gave the landowners the funds necessary to transfer the economy to the new conditions that arose in connection with the abolition of serfdom
- contributed to the conservation of semi-serf relations in agriculture (work-off system, sharecropping, sharecropping)
- negatively affected the development of peasant farms, forced to give part of the produced product as redemption payments
- enhanced the property and social differentiation of the peasantry, its decomposition
- strengthened the property and social differentiation of the peasantry. His decomposition
- drew the peasant economy into market relations, contributed to the development of commodity-money relations, overcoming subsistence farming.
C7. During the reign of Alexander 3, critical assessments of the judicial reform of 1864 were expressed; the post-reform courts were called dangerous talking shops and claimed that they contributed to the growth of the revolutionary movement.
What point of view on the question of the meaning of judicial reform do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three facts and statements that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
An alternative point of view given in the assignment:
Judicial reform was the most consistent of the Great Reforms of the 1860s and 1870s, an important step towards establishing an equal, independent, open judiciary.
- post-reform courts in the 1860-1870s. sometimes people were acquitted. Guilt was not in doubt
- acquittals handed down by a jury to participants in the revolutionary movement are known (the trial of Vera Zasulich)
- court sessions aroused great interest of the public, were often held in an atmosphere of sensationalism, were perceived as sources of scandalous information.
- the post-reform period was classless, the old class division of legal proceedings was destroyed, the principle of independence and irremovability of judges and judicial investigators was introduced
- A jury was created to deliver a verdict on the guilt or innocence of the accused.
C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.
In the 15th century Russian boyars firmly held on to the right of parochialism. And the boyars said: "That is death to them, that without places to be." However, in the early 80s. 17th century Tsar Fedor Alekseevich abolished localism.
What was the reason for this measure? What was the significance of the abolition of parochialism?
The following reasons for the abolition of parochialism in the 1980s can be named. 17th century
The urgent need for reforms in Russia required a change in the principle of appointment to the highest government positions;
- parochial orders had a negative impact on the state and military service, the system of distribution of ranks and positions in the Russian state;
- localism hampered the king in the right to choose officials;
Localism introduced rivalry, envy, disputes among the boyars.
Provisions on the meaning of the abolition of parochialism:
- personal qualities, professional skills, zealous service to the sovereign became the main source of promotion;
- a blow was dealt to the claims of the feudal nobility to power;
- representatives of the nobility gradually became the mainstay of absolutism, won the struggle for predominance in the ruling elite of Russia.
C4. Name at least three changes in the position of the peasantry and townspeople after the adoption of the Council Code. Give at least three provisions that characterize the significance of this document.
Changes in the position of the peasantry and townspeople after the adoption of the Council Code:
- the abolition of contingent years and the introduction of an indefinite investigation of fugitive peasants
Establishing the heredity of serfdom
Granting landowners the right to dispose of the property of a serf
Granting landowners the right to a patrimonial court and police supervision of serfs
Imposing on the serfs the obligation to perform duties in favor of the state
- elimination of "white" settlements
- the prohibition of peasants to keep constant trade in cities and the consolidation of the right to trade for townspeople
Provisions characterizing the significance of the Cathedral Code:
- actually completed the process of legal registration of serfdom
- contributed to the strengthening of royal power, contained a number of provisions aimed at protecting the personality of the monarch and the Russian Orthodox Church
- contributed to the design of the class structure of society, the definition of the rights and obligations of the main classes
- acted as a code of laws of the Russian state until the first half of the 19th century.
C7. In domestic science, there is a judgment that the reason for the election of Mikhail Romanov to the Russian throne was that the boyars, who played the main role at the Zemsky Sobor in 1613, believed that "Mikhail is young, he has not yet reached his mind and will be convenient for us."
What other judgment about the reasons for the election of Mikhail Romanov to the Russian throne do you know? Which one do you think is more convincing? List at least three facts. Propositions of judgments. Which can serve as arguments for your chosen point of view.
On the reasons for choosing Mikhail Romanov to the Russian throne:
- The Romanovs, who had family ties with the previous dynasty, were most suited to all classes, which made it possible to achieve reconciliation and national harmony.
Arguments:
- for the nobility- The Romanovs are descendants of an old boyar family;
— for the Cossacks Mikhail Romanov is the son of Patriarch Filaret, who was in the Tushino camp for a long time and was associated with the Cossacks;
— for the peasantry, townspeople Mikhail Romanov was a "natural king", a symbol of national independence and the Orthodox faith.
C7. Many Western historians consider the Soviet Union to be responsible for the outbreak of the Cold War in the second half of the 1940s.
What other assessments of the causes of the Cold War do you know? What assessment do you think is the most convincing? Give at least three facts, provisions that argue your chosen point of view.
Other estimates, alternative to the one given in the assignment:
A) the leaders of the United States and its allies, representatives of the aggressive forces of these states are responsible for the unleashing of the "cold war";
B) Both sides are "to blame" for the "cold war". Defending their own interests, ambitions, the main reason was the struggle of two superpowers - the USSR, the USA for leadership in the world.
When choosing the assessment set out in the task:
- one of the foundations of the state ideology of the USSR was the assertion of the inevitable victory of the world revolution, the Soviet leadership tried to implement this provision when favorable conditions arose;
- the establishment of pro-Soviet regimes in the states of Eastern Europe was regarded by the ruling circles of Western countries as the forcible imposition of the Soviet model of development, the "expansion" of the USSR.
- The refusal of the USSR and, under its pressure, the countries of Eastern Europe to accept the Marshall Plan further deepened the confrontation between the two groups of states.
If you select the score set out in part 1(a) of the response content:
The post-war foreign policy of the United States and its allies was aimed at establishing its leadership in the world;
- after the war, the United States developed plans for the possible use of atomic weapons against the USSR;
- the US military leadership developed strategic plans for military operations against the USSR.
If you choose the score set out in part 1 (b) of the content of the answer:
Both sides defended their interests;
- the clash of these interests arose in the solution of each of the complex problems of the world order after the war;
— the principles of the Atlantic Charter and the UN Charter, designed to resolve international conflicts, were understood and interpreted by each of the parties in different ways, using them in their own interests;
- each of the parties formed its own military-political and economic organizations to protect its interests;
- each of the parties waged not only ideological rivalry, but also a psychological war, forming an "enemy image" in relation to the opposing "camp";
- both sides in that period did not rise to the level of global interests, each of them contributed to the unleashing of the "cold war", one culprit cannot be found here.
C6. Review the historical situation and answer the questions.
Started in the late 1940s. The Cold War period was characterized by confrontation between the USSR and the USA, an increasing arms race, which led to the danger of a nuclear war.
What were the changes in international relations in the 1970s reflected in what events? Why did they become possible?
Changes in international relations:
- a period of some normalization of relations between the USSR and Western countries began, called detente of international tension;
— important treaties were concluded between the USSR and the USA (on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems in 1972, the limitation of strategic weapons in 1979);
- there was an improvement in relations between the USSR and France and the FRG;
The Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe was signed in Helsinki.
Reasons for switching to discharge:
Accumulation by opposing blocs of an approximately equal number of nuclear weapons (military-strategic parity between the USSR and the USA);
— awareness by the world community of the senselessness of building up nuclear weapons;
- the calculation of the USSR on strengthening the socialist camp and the revolutionary movement in the world in the process of detente;
- US calculation on the weakening of the military-industrial complex and the defense capability of the USSR.
C6. In 1988 General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev announced the deepening of political reforms, the need to democratize Soviet society while maintaining the socialist choice. What other opinions on this issue were then expressed? Name two opinions. Give at least three facts related to the implementation of political reforms.
Opinions may be given:
- it is necessary to abandon the implementation of political reforms, to limit publicity, to curtail the processes of democratization, insofar as they threaten the gains of socialism;
- it is necessary to act more decisively, to carry out consistent democratic transformations, to allow a real multi-party system, to hold free alternative elections, to eliminate censorship, to recognize ideological diversity, including the right to exist for ideologies that are in opposition to the communist one.
The following facts may be mentioned:
- held in 1989 elections of people's deputies on an alternative basis;
- sharp discussions at the 1st Congress of People's Deputies
- the creation of the first political parties that opposed the omnipotence of the CPSU
- the abolition of the sixth article of the Constitution of the USSR on the CPSU as the leading and guiding force of Soviet society;
— activities of the Interregional Group of People's Deputies.
C7. Slavophiles in the middle of the 19th century sharply negatively assessed the transformations of Peter 1, laying on them responsibility for the omnipotence of the bureaucracy and the horrors of serfdom.
What other point of view on the question of the meaning of Peter's transformations do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three provisions that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
An alternative point of view given in the assignment:
The transformations of Peter 1 were prepared by all previous developments, they contributed to overcoming the backlog of Russia from the developed countries, turning it into a great European power.
A. When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
- in the reign of Peter 1, absolutism finally took shape, inextricably linked with the formation of the bureaucracy, the bureaucratic apparatus of governing the country
During the reforms, serfdom increased, the lack of freedom of all classes, including the nobility
- one of the consequences of the reforms of Peter 1 was the cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and a mass of the population, alien to new European values
The main method of carrying out transformations was violence, applied against all sectors of society, reliance on the punitive power of the state.
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
- the reforms of Peter 1 were based on those changes in all spheres of the country's life that occurred in the middle and in the second half of the 17th century, during the reign of his father Alexei Mikhailovich
- as a result of the Peter's transformations, a significant step was taken in the development of the economy (manufactory, protectionist policy, the development of national production, etc.), public administration (the proclamation of the empire, colleges, the Senate, etc.)
- Russian culture was enriched with the latest achievements of European science, art, education for that time (the opening of schools, the publication of the first printed newspaper, the creation of the Academy of Sciences, etc.)
Peter's reforms in the field of military affairs created an army that managed to win access to the Baltic Sea and turn Russia into one of the strongest European powers.
C5. Compare the system of government in Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich and after the reforms carried out by Peter 1. What was common in them and what was different.
As general characteristics, the management systems in Russia during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich and after the reforms carried out by Peter 1 can be named:
- under Alexei Mikhailovich, a tendency towards the formation of absolutism is being formed, under Peter 1;
- under Alexei Mikhailovich, the activities of the Zemsky Sobors ceased;
The general trend is the tendency towards the formation of a bureaucratic apparatus.
Differences:
C4. Expand the main results of the transformational activities of Peter 1.
The results of the foreign policy activities of Peter 1.:
- access to the Baltic Sea was won, Russia acquired the status of a great power (since 1721 - the empire )
Results of domestic policy in the economy:
- as a result of state assistance to the development of industry. Policies of protectionism the emergence of large-scale manufactory production. New industries
- development of trade (policy of mercantelism)
In the political system:
— public administration reforms, creation of a new state apparatus (Senate, Boards), regional and city reforms (creation of local governments)
- church reform. The creation of the Synod, the subordination of the church to secular power
- military reforms, regular army and navy
In social relationships:
- strengthening the position of the nobility, expanding its class privileges (Decree on uniform inheritance, Table of ranks)
The tightening of serfdom, the intensification of the exploitation of peasants and working people, the introduction of a poll tax
In the field of culture and life:
- the introduction of the civil alphabet, the publication of the first newspaper, the transition to a new chronology
- the formation of a system of secular education. development of sciences (foundation of the Academy of Sciences)
The introduction of European customs in everyday life
Conclusion: the transformation of Peter 1 led to the strengthening of the military-political position of Russia in Europe. Strengthening autocracy.
C4. Name at least three popular uprisings that took place in the 18th century, indicate their reasons (at least three).
The following 18th century folk performances:
- the uprising of 1705-1706. in Astrakhan;
- uprising on the Don under the leadership of K. Bulavin (1707-1708)
- performance of working people at manufactories (20s of the 18th century)
- religious performances of the Old Believers in the first quarter of the 18th century;
- movements of peasants and working people in the 30-60s. 18th century;
- Peasant-Cossack uprising led by E. Pugachev 1773-1775\
Reasons for popular demonstrations: toughening:
- tightening of feudal oppression;
- the growth of duties of peasants and townspeople;
- the plight of working people;
- decrees of Peter 1. on ascribed and possessive peasants;
- the offensive of the state on the Cossack liberties;
— Persecution of the Old Believers.
C5. Compare the ideas underlying the theory of official nationality. And the ideas that the Slavophiles adhered to in the middle of the 19th century. What was common and what was different.
General characteristics:
- an idea of the originality of the historical path of Russia, its difference from the historical path of the West;
- belief in the charity of the autocracy for the Russian society;
- representation of the special role of Orthodoxy as the spiritual foundation of Russian society.
Differences:
The theory of official nationality | Views of the Slavophiles |
The main task is to preserve the established order based on the triad of “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”, rejection of reforms Defense of autocracy as the only form of government supported by the Russian people Preservation of serfdom as a form of guardianship of the people by landlords Maintaining censorship Idealization of the past of Russia, the idea of the unity of the history of the country | Recognition of the need for reforms, significant changes in the public life of Russia Preservation of autocracy with the obligatory addition of the power of autocratic power to the opinion of society (“the power of power to the tsar, the power of opinion to the people”), the reconstruction of the Zemsky Sobor Abolition of serfdom Implementation of the principle of freedom of the press A sharply critical attitude towards the activities of Peter 1. the idea of a “break” in Russian history as a result of the transformations he carried out. |
C6. At the beginning of the 19th century, M.M. Speransky. He proposed to implement the principle of separation of powers, create the State Duma and the State Council, and carry out other transformations.
What other ideas about the prospects for the development of the country were expressed during the reign of Alexander 1? Name two views. Was Speransky's program implemented? Why? Give at least three reasons.
Views can be named:
- Russia does not need transformations, it needs "not a constitution, but fifty efficient governors" and unlimited autocracy (N.M. Karamzin)
- Radical changes are needed - the adoption of the Constitution and the approval of the constitutional order, the restriction or liquidation of the autocracy, the abolition of serfdom (Decembrists).
Project M.M. Speransky was not fully implemented, and the reasons can be given:
- M.M.'s plans Speransky caused sharp discontent of the court society
- he did not find support among the metropolitan bureaucracy, who feared a new system of public service
- the personal qualities of Alexander 1, who retreated under pressure from conservative sentiments, also influenced the failure of the reforms
- An important reason is the contradiction between the need for reforms and the real danger of a social explosion caused by reforms.
C4. Explain what was the historical need for reforms in Russia in the middle of the 19th century.
Internal prerequisites for the reforms of 1861-1871.
- disintegration of the feudal economic system;
- estates of landowners: their profitability due to increased exploitation of the peasants, and not the introduction of new technology
- subsistence economy of peasants: their poverty, low purchasing power;
- the growth of peasant uprisings;
- the need to overcome the backwardness of Russian industry: one of the reasons is the lack of labor due to the serfdom of a significant part of the population
Foreign Policy Crisis:
- the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856. The main reason is the military-technical backwardness of the country
Awareness of the Russian society. Government circles of the immorality of serfdom, the need to abolish it in order to overcome the backlog of Russia from the leading countries of Europe.
C4. Expand the thesis: "The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War meant the collapse of the principles of the reign of Nicholas."
In the field of foreign policy, Nicholas 1's hopes for the solidarity of European monarchs did not materialize.
England and France went to war against Russia
Austria, which Russia helped to suppress the revolutionary uprisings of 1848-1849, took a position of hostile neutrality (waiting)
Russia found itself in a state of international isolation
The war showed that the great European powers are opposed to the growing influence of Russia in the Balkans
In the field of domestic politics, the war revealed the general economic, technical and military backwardness of Russia
The defeat was largely due to the peculiarities of the internal situation in Russia during the reign of Nicholas, including:
- maintaining the serf system in the countryside
- underdevelopment of industry
– poor state of transport, weak railway network
- the preservation of the class principle of manning the army, which prevented the promotion of gifted people "from the common people"
- outdated weapons of the army and navy
The heroism of Russian soldiers was not supported by the necessary economic and military power of the country
Conclusion: defeat in the war was considered by many as a consequence of the crisis state of the Russian Empire.
C6. Consider the historical situation and answer the questions.
What goals did Alexander 1 set when deciding to go on a campaign? What were the goals of the Russian soldiers, participants in the campaign? What were the consequences of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814? for the international position of Russia?
Goals:
Alexandra 1:
- weaken the position of France in Europe;
— to create a system of international treaties for the purpose of concerted actions in resolving disputes
- to restore legitimate monarchies in France, Spain.
Russian soldiers, participants of the campaign:
- liberate the peoples of Europe from Napoleon's dominion;
- to defeat Napoleon's army in order to prevent the possibility of new wars.
Consequences of foreign campaigns in 1813-1814. for the international position of Russia:
- Russia made a decisive contribution to the military defeat of Napoleonic France;
- Russia, among the victorious countries of Napoleon, determined the fate of the peoples of Europe after the Napoleonic wars;
- the Kingdom of Poland became part of the Russian Empire;
- Russia took part in the creation and activities of the Holy Union;
Russia's positions in the international arena have been strengthened.
C5. Compare the goals and content of the domestic policy of Alexander 1 in the initial period of his reign and in the period after the Patriotic War of 1812. What was common and what was different.
General characteristics:
- recognition of the importance of the issue of serfdom and the development of projects for its resolution (decree on the "free ploughmen" of the Unofficial Committee; the activities of the secret committee and the project of A.A. Arakcheev)
- recognition of the importance of the issue of state governance and the development of projects for its changes (the establishment of ministries, the State Council; the activities of the secret committee under the leadership of N.N. Novosiltsev and the development of the charter)
Differences:
Initial period | The period after the Patriotic War of 1812 |
The emperor’s general interest in the reform programs, reliance on supporters of reforms (private committee, M.M. Speransky) Adoption of the decree on free cultivators Carrying out a number of reforms, implementing individual projects developed by the Private Committee and M.M. Speransky | Gradual cooling of the emperor to transformations. Strengthening the influence of the opponents of the reforms, primarily Count A.A. Arakcheeva Confirmation of the right of landowners to exile peasants without trial or investigation to hard labor Development of projects for reforms in secret committees, refusal to implement the developed projects |
C7. Commander of the 2nd Russian Army P.I. Bagration repeatedly spoke sharply critically about the activities of the commander of the 1st Russian army, M.B. Barclay de Tolly during the first period of the Patriotic War of 1812.
What other point of view on the issue of the activities of M.B. Do you know Barclay de Tolly? Which point of view do you think is more convincing? Open it and give at least three facts and statements. Which can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
An alternative point of view given in the assignment:
— M.B. Barclay de Tolly was an experienced and courageous military leader; his chosen tactics of refusing a general battle, the plan of retreat and the connection of the two Russian armies were the only correct ones.
A. When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
- The 1st and 2nd Russian armies avoided the battle with Napoleon. Retreated inland
- avoiding a general battle with Napoleon caused widespread discontent in the army
- in court circles they shared this discontent, blaming M.B. Barclay de Tolly in the weakness of patriotic feelings, indifference to the fate of the country.
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
- the French army significantly outnumbered the Russian army
- the retreat was deliberate, in order to lure the French army deep into the country, stretch its rear
- during the retreat, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies brilliantly maneuvered, more than once confusing Napoleon and his generals
- it was possible to ensure the connection of the Russian armies near Smolensk, and to carry out their further retreat in an organized and planned manner.
C7. Historian V.O. Klyuchevsky believed that all the undertakings of Alexander 1 were unsuccessful.
What other point of view on the issue of the significance of the reforms carried out during the reign of Alexander 1 do you know? Which point of view do you think is more convincing7 Expand it and give at least three facts and statements that can serve as arguments to support your point of view.
An alternative point of view given in the assignment:
The transformations carried out during the reign of Alexander 1, for all their inconsistency and inconsistency, had important consequences, made noticeable changes in the management system, social relations in the country.
A. When choosing the point of view set out in the task:
constitutional drafts of the Unspoken Committee, M.M. Speransky, N.N. Novosiltsev were not implemented, Russia remained an autocratic monarchy
- plans for the liberation of the peasants, the abolition of serfdom remained at the level of project development and discussion in the Unofficial Committee, secret committees (A.A. Arakcheev, N.S. Mordvinov)
The futility of the activities of Alexander 1 confirms the emergence of secret societies of the Decembrists and their performance on Senate Square on December 14, 1825; the Decembrists demanded exactly what the emperor dreamed of upon accession to the throne - the Constitution, representative government, civil liberties, the rejection of serfdom
B. When choosing an alternative point of view:
- the reform of the supreme executive power was successfully carried out, ministries were created
- a decree on free cultivators was adopted, which gave the peasants the opportunity, by voluntary agreement with the landowner, to leave the serfdom
- Established the Council of State
- the university reform was carried out with a significant positive effect
— The Constitution was granted to the Kingdom of Poland.
C4. Name at least two main directions of transformations carried out in Russia during the reign of Alexander 1. Give at least three examples of the most important transformations related to one of these directions.
Directions of transformations of Alexander 1:
- in the field of public administration;
- in the social sphere;
- in the field of education .
In the field of public administration:
- an instruction to Speransky to develop a project based on the principle of "separation of powers";
— formation of the State Council4
- carrying out ministerial reform;
In the social sphere:
- issuance of a decree on free cultivators
- prohibition to print advertisements for the sale of serfs
The liberation of the peasants in the Baltic provinces
- establishment of military settlements
In the field of education:
— opening of a lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo;
- inclusion in the university charter of a provision on the autonomy of universities;
— permission to distribute foreign books in Russia;
- formation of educational districts.
C4. Explain how the Patriotic War of 1812 influenced the internal development and international position of Russia.
Consequences of the war for internal development:
The main result - managed to defend the independence and integrity of Russia
Losses among the military and civilian population, destruction of material and cultural values
The rise of patriotic feelings, a new stage in the development of national identity
Increased understanding of the unity of the nation, despite the class partitions
Awakening self-esteem in many ordinary people. Including serfs who fought for the freedom of the Fatherland
events of the war of 1812 and foreign campaign contributed to the spread of ideas of civic service to society, the activation of the social movement
victory in the Patriotic War led to an upsurge in the field of spiritual culture, literature and art
In the field of international relations:
The role of Russia in European politics and international relations has increased
The victory of European monarchies was accompanied by an increase in conservative, protective tendencies (Russia's participation in the Holy Alliance, the suppression of liberation movements in Europe)
C7. According to some historians, the main reason for the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War was that they managed to propose a program of transformations, solutions to pressing problems, which was supported by the main part of the peasantry.
What other points of view on the question of the reasons for the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War do you know? Which point of view do you find the most convincing? Name the facts. Provisions that can serve as arguments supporting your chosen point of view.
Other points of view, for example:
White failed to overcome internal divisions;
- the Bolsheviks created a combat-ready regular army;
The Bolsheviks used repressions, carried out the "Red Terror";
- in the conditions of foreign intervention, supported by the Whites, the Bolsheviks objectively acted as a force that defended the state independence of the country.
A. For the assessment set out in the assignment:
Bolsheviks abolished landlordism
- land was redistributed among the peasants who supported this measure
in the spring of 1919 The Bolsheviks proclaimed a policy of alliance with the middle peasants.
B. For the alternative estimates set out in part 1 of the response content:
— White postponed until the completion of Gr. War decision agrarian. national issues. The question of the future state structure of Russia;
- in the White camp there was no unity, no coordination of political and military actions;
- the leaders of the white movement received assistance from abroad, had to coordinate their actions with foreign powers;
in September 1918 The Red Terror was officially declared in the country
- throughout Gr. During the war, both sides used such measures as execution without trial, taking hostages, etc., but the Bolsheviks carried out these measures more widely;
- The Bolsheviks managed to mobilize more forces into their army than the Whites.
C5. Compare the foreign policy of the Soviet state in the first half of the 1930s. and in the late 1930s. Point out what was common and what was different.
Common features:
- Soviet foreign policy was determined by the position of the USSR as the only country of socialism in a hostile environment;
— by the beginning of the 1930s. passed a period of diplomatic recognition of the Soviet state, the USSR was an active participant in international relations;
- in the conditions of the aggressive actions of the fascist states in the 1930s. The USSR sought to suspend, push back the threat of war.
Differences:
First half of the 1930s | Late 1930s |
- participation of the USSR in the activities of international organizations, entry into the League of Nations | - pursuing their own course, curtailing contacts with the League of Nations after the start of the war against Finland |
- the struggle for the creation of a system of collective security in Europe (including the conclusion of agreements with France, Czechoslovakia) | - the desire to ensure their own security on the basis of bilateral treaties, the search for allies - Anglo-French-Soviet negotiations; the conclusion of the Soviet-German treaties in 1939. |
- condemnation by the Soviet Union of acts of aggression by fascist states | - the conclusion of non-aggression pacts and "friendship and border" pacts with Nazi Germany; annexation of new territories in 1939-1940. |
— coordination of the country's foreign policy and leadership tasks with the international communist movement; promotion of anti-fascist slogans | - rejection of the slogans of struggle after the conclusion of the Soviet-German treaties of 1939. (until June 1941) |
C4 . What are the main directions (at least two) of the foreign policy of the USSR in 1945-1953. Give at least three examples of any politicians.
- Main policy directions:
- participation in the resolution of international problems within the framework of the UN;
- strengthening the influence of the USSR on the Eastern European states;
— support for the national liberation movement in colonial and dependent countries;
- expanding the influence of the USSR on the communist and workers' parties of many countries of the world;
– active participation in the organization of the peace movement
- Examples:
- refusal of the USSR to accept the Marshall Plan;
- forcing Stalin on the atomic project in order to eliminate the US monopoly on atomic weapons, testing the atomic bomb (1949);
- helping the Chinese communists in the civil war;
- assistance to North Korea during the Korean War (1050-1953);
- assistance in the formation of the GDR after the creation of the FRG
C7. During the transition to NEP, some leaders of the Soviet state argued that this would be a step towards the restoration of capitalism, recognition of the defeat of Soviet power. What other point of view on the essence of NEP do you know? Which point of view do you find more convincing? Give at least three facts, provisions that can serve as arguments confirming your chosen point of view.
- Another point of view:
- NEP is a special policy, designed for a significant period of time, aimed at building the foundations of socialism.
- When choosing the assessment set out in the task:
- the NEP was a forced measure, taken under the pressure of negative circumstances for the Soviet government (the severe consequences of the Civil War, etc.);
- introducing the New Economic Policy, the leadership of the Communist Party and the Soviet state recognized that the policy of war communism as a policy of direct transition to socialism was defeated;
- similar thoughts were expressed by many communists who had a negative attitude towards the NEP.
When choosing an alternative point of view:
- having abandoned war communism, the leadership of the party and the state still set the goal of building socialism;
- in the hands of the state remained commanding heights (large enterprises, subsoil, foreign trade);
- Numerous restrictions were imposed on the activities of private capital;
- the state allowed separate market mechanisms, but prevented the creation of a market system;
- the dictatorship of the proletariat was strengthened, there was a one-party system
C5. Compare the goals and methods of state policy in the countryside during the NEP period and after the start of the policy of complete collectivization. What was common in them (at least two common characteristics), and what was different (at least three differences).
- As general characteristics of the goals and methods of state policy in the countryside during the NEP period and after the start of the policy of complete collectivization, the following can be named:
— transformation of agriculture on socialist principles as one of the goals of state policy
- recognition of the economic advantages of large ones. Technically equipped farms over small peasant farms
— recognition of the need for technical re-equipment of agriculture based on the development of heavy industry
- implementation of measures against the kulaks
- unequal exchange between town and country, prices for manufactured goods are higher than prices for agricultural products
After the beginning of continuous collectivization |
|
The main forms of procurement of agricultural products - tax in kind and public procurement | A system of mandatory state deliveries is being formed |
Free trade in bread and other agricultural products | Free trade in bread and other agricultural products abolished |
Use of market mechanisms and methods | A rigid administrative-command system is being formed |
ry aimed at limiting the kulaks. Mainly of an economic nature (taxes, deprivation of benefits, reduction in purchase prices) | The policy of dispossession, the liquidation of the kulaks as a class is being pursued. |
Small individual peasant farms are the basis of agricultural production | Kolkhozes and state farms become monopoly in essence, producers of agricultural products |
The number of unemployed registered at the Kazan labor exchange in 1921-1930
|
Was registered as unemployed at the Kazan Labor Exchange |
Including |
|||||
|
adolescents of both sexes |
union members |
arriving from the village |
||||
In 1926-1929, 95-100 thousand people annually arrived from the countryside to the cities and urban-type settlements of the Tatras Republic. A significant part of them settled in Kazan, replenishing the large army of the unemployed. As the statistics presented in the table show, the growth of unemployment in the republic continued until 1929. In the period from 1921 to 1923, on average, each offer on the Kazan labor exchange accounted for 0.85% of demand, and in 1924 this figure fell even lower - to 0.63%. The picture changed only in 1925, when for every supply of labor there was 1.23% demand. This was caused, on the one hand, by the expansion of large-scale industrial production, and, on the other hand, by the development of public works.
Abortion, even in the early 1920s, was not considered by any of the officials in Soviet Russia as a medical, legal and moral norm. But at the level of mass consciousness, both in pre-revolutionary and in Soviet Russia, artificial miscarriage was considered as a common occurrence. There were many people in the hospital who wanted to carry out this operation on legal terms. In 1924, even a decree was issued on the formation of abortion commissions. They regulated the queue for the production of abortions.
In 1925, in large cities, there were about 6 cases of artificial termination of pregnancy per 1000 people - outwardly not too many. According to Soviet law, factory workers used the benefits "for an abortion" out of turn. This was done because women from the proletarian environment, in the old fashioned way, resorted to the services of "grandmothers" and to "self-abortion" with the help of various kinds of poisons. Only one out of three working women who wanted to get rid of pregnancy turned to doctors in 1925. At the same time, material need was the main motive for the abortion. For this reason, 60% of women from the working environment in Leningrad and almost 70% in other industrial cities of Russia did not want to have a child. Almost 50% of female workers have already terminated their first pregnancy. Husbands were 80% of women who had abortions, but this circumstance did not at all increase their desire to become mothers. On the contrary, divorce statistics showed that in proletarian families, pregnancy was the reason for the dissolution of marriage.
Until the mid-1920s, Soviet social policy was aimed at creating the necessary medical support for freedom of abortion. In 1926, abortions were completely banned for women who became pregnant for the first time, as well as those who had done this operation less than six months ago. The Marriage and Family Code of 1926 approved a woman's right to artificial termination of pregnancy. Both in the government and in the philistine discourse, there was an understanding of the fact that the birth rate is not associated with a ban on abortion, despite their certain harmfulness to the female body. In Russian cities in 1913, 37.2 babies were born per 1,000 people; in 1917 - 21.7; in 1920 - 13.7; in 1923 and 1926 after allowing abortion 35.3 and 34.7 respectively. But with all this, the authorities found ways with their normalizing judgments to discipline female sexuality and reproduction in their own interests. Considering abortion to be a social evil, the Soviet system of maternity care considered induced miscarriage without anesthesia as the norm.
Page 231-233.
After the adoption of the law in 1936, outwardly, the situation with abortion improved. It might even seem that artificial termination of pregnancy turned into a deviation from generally accepted household practices. In the first half of 1936, 43,600 abortions were performed in Leningrad hospitals, and in the second half of the same year, after the adoption of the law, only 735. In general, during 1936-1938, the number of abortions decreased three times. But the birth rate during the same time increased only twice, and in 1940 it generally fell to the level of 1934. On the other hand, criminal abortions became the norm in Soviet society.
According to a secret memo from the Leningrad health authorities to the Regional Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, dated November 1936, for the whole of 1935, 5824 incomplete miscarriages were registered in the city, and only for the three months of 1936 that have passed since the adoption of the law banning abortions - 7912. And these data covered only those women who ended up in hospitals. Illegal abortions were performed by both professional gynecologists and people who had nothing to do with medicine. In 1936, among the persons prosecuted for performing abortions, doctors and nurses accounted for 23%, workers - 21%, employees and housewives 16% each, others - 24%. Despite the persecution, the underground abortionists had no shortage of clients either in the city or in its environs...
Progress in eradicating illiteracy among Volga Germans in 1920-1923 (p. 326)
|
years |
Number of students in literacy schools |
The number of literacy school graduates |
||
|
men |
women |
men |
women |
|
Daily nutritional allowances for children's institutions in Moscow and the Moscow province (data are given in spools; 1 gold = 4.266 grams) (p. 351)
|
Name of products |
For children from 3 to 8 years old |
For children from 8 to 16 years old |
For "defective" children and in sanatoriums |
|
Meat or fish |
|||
|
potato flour |
|||
|
cranberries or compote |
|||
|
Correction |
|||
|
seasoning |
|||
|
20 pcs. per month |
1 PC. in a day |
||
Towards the numerous statements of working women ... "Abortion policy as a mirror of Soviet social care Natalia LevinaProblems of childbearing are traditionally considered the sphere of social policy. However, it is here that the regulating and controlling orientation of state concern for population growth is manifested to the greatest extent, which often borders on direct control over private life and dictates in the sphere of intimate relationships.A vivid illustration of this situation can be the status of abortion as a means of birth control in the Soviet power discourse.
In the Russian history of the pre-Soviet period, the state traditionally stood in the position of rejection of artificial termination of pregnancy. Already in the 9th-14th centuries, documents recorded a clearly negative attitude of the authorities towards attempts to prevent the birth of an unwanted child [Chelovek ... 1996. S. 305 ~ 345] - In Russia of the 15th-17th centuries, behind the process of regulating family size, the only means of which was abortion, both the state and the church were zealously watching. For etching the fetus with a potion or with the help of a midwife, the priest imposed a penance on the woman for a period of five to fifteen years. According to the Penal Code of 1845, abortion was equated with deliberate infanticide. The blame for this crime was placed on the people who carried out the expulsion of the fetus, and on the women themselves. Without going into legal subtleties, it can be noted that abortion was punishable by loss of civil rights, hard labor from four to ten years for a doctor and exile to Siberia or a stay in a correctional institution for a period of four to six years for a woman. This legal situation remained almost unchanged until 1917. In pre-revolutionary Russia, artificial termination of pregnancy was formally carried out only for medical reasons. The officially recognized norm was a strictly negative attitude towards abortion, supported by such powerful tools for managing private life as anti-abortion legislation and Christian tradition. In other words, there were both normative and normalizing power judgments, coinciding in their essence. They also formed the direction of social policy, focused primarily on supporting motherhood, often to the detriment of the freedom and even health of women. In the mental norms at the beginning of the 20th century, changes were clearly traced associated with the growing process of modernization. The Russian urban society and, first of all, the inhabitants of the capital were clearly at a crossroads, subconsciously striving to make the transition to the neo-Malthusian way of limiting the birth rate in marriage by controlling the reproductive functions of the family. In the Russian public, sentiments associated with the concept of conscious motherhood also grew. However, the use of contraceptives has not yet become the norm of everyday life, despite the rather active promotion of various contraceptives in the capital's newspapers and magazines in 1908-1914 [for more details see: Engelstein, 1992. P. 345, 346, 347]. illegal abortions, as noted by the regular Pirogov congress of Russian doctors that met in 1910, increased in "epidemic proportion", on the eve of the First World War, according to the testimony of the famous doctor N. Vngdor-chika, residents of St. Petersburg began to .. -look at the artificial miscarriage as something ordinary and accessible ... the addresses of doctors and midwives who performed these operations without any formalities, at a certain rate, not very high [Public,. 1914. S, 217], Abortion became an unauthorized norm of everyday life. Urban women, in fact, ignored the official ban on artificial termination of pregnancy, thereby demonstrating their desire to independently solve the issues of childbirth control. and sometimes the death of patients. And Russian feminists, in addition, believed that a woman should finally be given the right to make an independent choice in deciding the issue of future offspring. All this testified to the fact that at the level of public discourse, judgments about abortion as some kind of social anomaly were losing their sharpness. Moreover, the townspeople were quite ready for the idea of recognizing artificial miscarriage as a legal method of birth control. These sentiments were largely the basis for turning abortion policy into a sphere of social concern for the new state. Even before the Bolsheviks came to power, V.I. Lenin wrote about the need for "the unconditional abolition of all laws persecuting abortion." He emphasized that "these laws are nothing but hypocrisy of the ruling classes" [Lenin, 1962, p. 257]. In this case, the Bolshevik leader spoke in the spirit of bourgeois-democratic ideas about the freedom of a person to choose the style of his reproductive behavior. The Puritan-patriarchal model of sexuality and reproduction was clearly in conflict with the general trends in the development of morality and ethics in most progressive countries of Europe and America. However, among the Russian Social Democrats, especially among representatives of their extreme left wing, the question of the ban on abortion has also acquired an anti-clerical character. By separating church from state and eliminating church marriage, the Soviet state thus created a serious basis for the legalization of abortion in the new society. However, the further development of this issue largely depended on the formulation of the system of medical and social support for operations on artificial miscarriage. And this is probably why, despite the anti-church orientation of most of their decisions in the sphere of regulation of private life, the Bolsheviks did not dare to repeal the laws banning abortions in the very first months after coming to power. In 1918-1919, the new statehood formed the principles of its social care in the field of protection of motherhood and childhood. It was only in the spring of 1920 that an active discussion began on the issues of permitting abortions. In April 1920, a special meeting of the Zhenotdel of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) was held, at which the then People's Commissar for Health of the National Assembly Semashko directly stated that "miscarriage should not be punishable, because punishability pushes women to healers, midwives, etc.<...> maiming women" [quoted by: Drobizhev, 1987. p. 78]. that this operation contributes to "dragging women into public life" [cited by: Drobizhev, 1987. P. 78]. Finally, on November 18, 1920, by a joint decision of the People's Commissariats of Justice and Health, abortions were allowed in Soviet Russia. The Soviet Republic became the first in the world country that legalized induced miscarriage. Those who wished were given the opportunity to have an abortion operation in a special medical institution, regardless of whether the woman’s health was threatened or not by further gestation. At first, abortion was performed free of charge. 1990s was qualified as a "social evil", a social anomaly. Abortion could only be tolerated in Soviet society if accompanied by a powerful campaign to explain their detrimental effects on a woman's health. The leaders of the People's Commissariat of Justice and the People's Commissariat of Health were sure that with the growth of the successes of socialist construction, women would generally no longer need to control childbearing in any way, and above all with the help of abortions. Almost no one thought about contraception as a counterbalance to abortion. Moreover, some Bolshevik publicists, such as P. Vinogradskaya, considered contraceptives to be an element of bourgeois decay [Vinogradskaya, 1926. P. 113-114]. Even in the early 1920s, none of the officials in Soviet Russia considered abortion as a medical and legal and moral standards. But at the level of mass consciousness, both in pre-revolutionary and in Soviet Russia, artificial miscarriage was considered as a common occurrence. There were many people in the hospital who wanted to carry out this operation on legal terms. In 1924, even a decree was issued on the formation of abortion commissions. They regulated the queue for the production of an abortion operation. In 1925, in large cities, there were about 6 cases of artificial termination of pregnancy per 1000 people - outwardly not too many [see: Aborty ... 1927]. According to Soviet law, factory workers used the benefits "for an abortion" out of turn. This was done because women from the proletarian environment, in the old fashioned way, resorted to the services of "grandmothers" and to "self-abortions" with the help of various kinds of poisons (ill. i). Only one out of three working women who wanted to get rid of pregnancy turned to doctors in 1925. At the same time, material need was the main motive for the abortion. For this reason, more than % of women from the working environment in Leningrad and almost 70% in other industrial cities of Russia did not want to have a child [Aborty ... 1927. P. 40, 45, 66]. Almost 50% of female workers have already terminated their first pregnancy [Ogatisticheskoe... 1928, p. 113]. Husbands were 80% of women who had abortions, but this circumstance did not at all increase their desire to become mothers. On the contrary, divorce statistics showed that in proletarian families, pregnancy was the cause of divorce. Until the mid-1920s, Soviet social policy was aimed at creating the necessary medical support for freedom of abortion. In 1926, abortions were completely banned for women who became pregnant for the first time, as well as those who had done this operation less than six months ago. The Marriage and Family Code of 1926 approved a woman's right to artificial termination of pregnancy. Both in the government and in the philistine discourse, there was an understanding of the fact that the birth rate is not associated with a ban on abortion, despite their certain harmfulness to the female body. In Russian cities in 1913, 37.2 babies were born per 1,000 people; in 1917 - 21.7; in 1920 -13.7; in 1923 and 1926, after abortion was allowed, 35.3 and 34.7, respectively [Ogrumilin, 1964. p. 137]. But with all this, the authorities found ways with their normalizing judgments to discipline female sexuality and reproduction in their own interests. Considering abortions to be a social evil, the Soviet system of maternity care regarded as the norm an induced miscarriage without anesthesia. anesthesia. To her complaint, he "coldly replied:" We save them (drugs. -Ya. L.) for more important operations. Abortion is nonsense, a woman bears it easily. Now that you know this pain, this will serve as a good lesson for you "[cited no: Goldmam, 1993. P. 264]. Many doctors generally believed that the suffering inflicted on a woman during an abortion operation was a necessary retribution for getting rid of the fetus, but neither pain nor humiliation stopped the women. Contrary to the predictions of communist theorists, as a new society was built and an exemplary Soviet family was created, the number of abortions did not decrease, but grew. In 1924, there were 5.5 cases of officially recorded abortions per 1,000 inhabitants in Leningrad; in 1926 - 14.1; in 1928 - 31.5; in 1930 - 33.7; in 1932 - 33.4; in 1934 - 421. The birth rate began to decline steadily only from the mid-1930s. In 1934, only 15.5 newborns appeared in Leningrad per 100 of the population - less than in the famine of 1918. In general, this was a global trend: as is known, the birth rate was decreasing in the most economically developed industrial countries. In this case, the reduction in the size of the families of Soviet people could be interpreted as a consequence of the growth in general prosperity. And there were certain grounds for such an assertion. S. G. Strumilin, the largest Soviet specialist in statistics and demography, emphasized that survey materials from 1929-1933 showed a stable inverse relationship between the size of housing and the fertility of married couples. However, by the end of the 1920s, the country's leadership clearly began to focus on the traditionalist ideal of having many children, opposing the demographic development of the USSR to the general modernization trends. F. 7384. Op. 2. D. 52. L. 36. 2 TsGA St. Petersburg. F. 7384 - Op. 2. D. 52. L. 37. At the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, I. V. Stalin named the rapid growth of population among the most important achievements of socialism [Stalin, 1951, p. 336]. And, apparently, in his corner, Sgrumilin was forced to declare, contrary to the logic of numbers, that "the experience of the capitalist West in the field of birth rate dynamics is not a decree for us" [Sgrumilin, 1964. p. 137]. The Bolshevik leadership was alarmed not only by a decrease in the population and an increase in the number of abortions in the country, but also by an increase in the degree of freedom of the population in the private sphere. It was very easy to reduce the number of artificial miscarriages by increasing, as in most Western countries, the production of contraceptives. In this case, the field of social care would also be noticeably expanded: there would be a serious need not only for the development of a certain area of pharmaceutical production, but also for the development of medical educational work. However, the authorities obviously did not intend to develop such a sphere of social concern for the reproductive capacity of the population. In the mass literature on sex education, almost nothing has been written about preventing unwanted pregnancies. And this is not surprising. It was simply impossible to get such funds in Soviet Russia. The old Moscow intellectual history teacher I. I. Schitz wrote in his diary in the summer of 1930, not without bitter irony: But what will happen when the tail is on the street, and housewives start coming up with the question "What do they give?" [Shitz, 1991, p. 185]. However, starting from the time of the "great turning point", the Soviet regime no longer considered it necessary to allow people to safely enjoy even this somewhat dubious degree of freedom. Concern about reproduction is replaced by strict control. Since 1930, the operation for artificial termination of pregnancy has become paid. At the same time, demagogically arguing that abortion causes irreparable damage to the female body, state structures increased prices every year. , and in 1935 - from 25 to 300 rubles. True, since 1934 the price has already depended on t the level of security of women. But this did not help much. If the "earnings per family member" ranged from 8o to ioo rubles, then 75 rubles were taken for the operation - almost a quarter of all the income of an average family of four ... A woman was thus punished for "willfulness" not only pain, but also "ruble". Control has acquired quite materialized forms. The state took "abortion money" into its budget. In the first quarter of 1935 in Leningrad, the "income from the production of abortions" (so in the source. - N. L.) amounted to 3,615,444 rubles proven means of self-abortion and the help of private doctors. In a secret note from the deputy head of the city health department to the presidium of the Leningrad Council, as early as May 1935, there was an "increase in incomplete abortions (by 75%) caused outside hospital conditions by criminal professionals" sounded the alarm. They really cared about the health of the nation. The lack of contraceptives encouraged women to systematically resort to abortions. For a 30-35-year-old city dweller, 6-8 operations of a similar nature were the norm. It is no coincidence that the same secret note expressed demands not only to “change the existing scale of payment for abortion”, but also systematically “to supply all gynecological outpatient clinics, consultations, offices, enterprises, pharmacies and sanitation and hygiene stores with all types of contraceptives ... "," arrange the production of already prepared brochures on the contraceptive system. At the same time, the authors of the note dared to say that it is not the legalization of abortion, but the lack of living space and uncertainty about the future that makes women refuse to have an extra child. This was evidenced by the materials of a survey of 33 women who applied to the hospital named after V. Kuibyshev with a request to perform an operation to terminate a pregnancy. Nine of them could not afford to give birth to a child due to difficult living conditions. “6 people live on an area of 12 square meters”, “I divorced my husband, but I live in the same room and sleep on the same bed with a jack, there is nowhere to put the second”, “My husband and I live in different apartments, since none of us has our own area has" - one can hardly call these motives a petty-bourgeois and philistine unwillingness to infringe on one's personal interests by worries about posterity * 1 TsGA St. Petersburg. F. 7884. Op. 2. D. 52. L. 27,28.2 TsGA St. Petersburg. F. 7884. Op. 2. D. 52. L. a.e. But the Soviet ideological system could not be satisfied even with the insignificant degree of freedom of private life provided by the 1920 decree on the legalization of abortion. country were banned. The resolution read: “Only in the conditions of socialism, where there is no exploitation of man by man and where a woman is a full-fledged member of society, and a progressive increase in material well-being is the law of social development, is it possible to put the fight against abortion, including through prohibitive laws ... In this the government is meeting the numerous statements of working women "... According to a new turn in the social policy of the Soviet government, at the "urgent requests of the working people," a whole system of criminal penalties was introduced for the commission of artificial miscarriages. Not only the persons who pushed the woman to make the decision to have an abortion, not only the doctors who performed the operation, but also the woman herself were subjected to repression. First, she was threatened with public censure, and then a fine of up to 300 rubles - an impressive amount for that time. This also meant that the woman had to answer in the affirmative to the question of the questionnaire "whether he was under trial and investigation." In the Soviet state, this entailed a clear infringement of civil rights. Thus, concern grew into control of a repressive nature. By adopting the draconian abortion law, the authorities have received another powerful lever to control the private lives of citizens. After all, the attitude towards contraception in the Soviet state has not changed. It was akin to the position of the Catholic Church, which denied any form of birth control. To prove it, it is enough to cite excerpts from the methodological development of the exhibition for women's consultations. The document is dated 1939. The consultations included a text poster "Contraceptives". Its content was as follows: In the Soviet Union, the use of contraceptives is recommended only as one of the measures to combat the remnants of clandestine abortions and as a measure to prevent pregnancy for those women for whom pregnancy and childbirth are harmful to their health and may even threaten their lives, and not as a measure of regulation of childbearing1. This corresponded to the general trend of deerotization of Soviet society, in which female sexuality could be realized only through childbearing. Such norms of intimate life suited the political system of Stalinism. The suppression of natural human feelings by ideology gave rise to fanaticism of an almost religious nature, which found expression in unconditional devotion to the leader. After the passage of the 1936 law, the situation with abortions outwardly improved. It might even seem that artificial termination of pregnancy turned into a deviation from generally accepted household practices. In the first half of 1936, 43 abortions were performed in Leningrad hospitals, and in the second half of the same year, after the adoption of the law, only 735. In general, during 1936-1938, the number of abortions decreased three times. But the birth rate during the same time increased only twice, and in 1940 it generally fell to the level of 1934. On the other hand, criminal abortions became the norm in Soviet society. According to a secret note from the Leningrad health authorities to the regional committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks dated November 1936, 5,824 incomplete miscarriages were registered in the city in 1935, and only in the three months after the adoption of the law on the prohibition of abortion, - 7 9121. And these data covered only those women who ended up in hospitals. Illegal abortions were performed by both professional gynecologists and people who had nothing to do with medicine. In 1936, among the persons prosecuted for performing abortions, there were 2396 doctors and nurses, 2196 workers, 1696 employees and housewives, and 2496 others. in the city or in its vicinity. A special report to the chairman of the executive committee of the Lensoviet dated April 17, 1941 "On the opening of an underground abortion clinic in the Mginsky district of the Leningrad region" recorded that ... a worker of Nazievsky peat extraction, Morozova Maria Egorovna, 35 years old, who over the past 3 years has performed 17 abortions, was engaged in the production of criminal abortions various workers of the above-mentioned peat extraction, receiving in each individual case a monetary reward, financial allowances and manufactured goods. Later it was established that Morozova was assisted in recruiting women for abortions by workers of the same peat extraction ... which are according to 1 TsGA IPD. F. 24. Op. 2c. D. 2332. L. 47. They received part of the remuneration from Morozova. Abortions were carried out in unsanitary conditions by injecting a soapy solution. The practice of self-abortions, in most cases ending in terrible complications, has become widespread. After the adoption of the law banning abortion, the number of women dying from sepsis has quadrupled. Fortunately, there have been cases when self-abortions ended successfully, and the woman, having got to the hospital on time, remained alive and relatively healthy. But the law was ruthless - the established fact of self-abortion was instantly recorded, and the case was referred to the court. There were many such situations. One of them, the most egregious, was recorded in the “Special report on the simulation of the rape of citizen S. in order to hide self-abortion in the Borovichi district of the Leningrad region” received by the regional executive committee of the Leningrad City Council on April 21, 1941: In early April 1941, a woman was admitted to the district hospital 23 years old with heavy bleeding. From her story, the doctors concluded that she had been subjected to terrible violence. The criminals tortured her using glasses from a broken glass, which, in fact, were extracted from the internal organs of the victim. It was then established that citizen S. had resorted to feigning rape in order to have a miscarriage in her fifth month of pregnancy. The case has been referred to the prosecutor's office. A copy of the report to the regional committee of the CPSU (b) 2. Most often, self-abortions and the services of underground abortionists, as before the revolution, were resorted to by young unmarried workers. However, after the adoption of the law in 1936, criminal artificial miscarriage became traditional among family women, often from nomenklatura strata. The regional prosecutor, in a secret note sent to the regional committee of the CPSU (b) in February 1940, indicated: I consider it necessary to bring to your attention the facts of illegal abortions in the Lakhtinsky district of Len. region The largest number of illegal abortions in this area are carried out by the wives of responsible workers. Cases of self-abortion were established - the wife of the editor of the district newspaper, the use of the services of an underground abortionist - the wife of the head. department 1 of the Central State Archive of St. Petersburg. F. 7179. Op. 53. D. 41. L. 17.2 TsGA St. Petersburg. F. 7179. Op. 53. L. 25.1 TsGA St. Petersburg. F. 7179. Op. 53. D. 40. L. no. 2 TsGA St. Petersburg. F. 9156. Op. 4. D. 693. L. 1.3 TsGA NTD. F. 193. Op. 1-1. D. 399. L. 6.15. of the district committee of the CPSU (b), the wife of the assistant district prosecutor, the wife of the people's judge The ban on abortion did not give the desired effect. On the contrary, the number of children decreased. The reasons for this process were obvious to both physicians and relevant specialists. This is evidenced by excerpts from the secret reports of the Leningrad regional and city health departments. The authors of a memorandum on the state of obstetric care in Leningrad in 1937 stated: The complete unpreparedness of the obstetric organs to meet a new increased birth rate (after the law on the ban on abortion. - N. L.) led to overcrowding and overload of maternity hospitals - factors / resulting in an increase in mortality as among newborns, and among women in labor. In addition, many doctors, pitying women, still gave permission for an abortion on medical grounds. In 1937, abortion commissions, in particular in Leningrad, issued permission for an induced miscarriage operation to almost half of the women who applied. In the same year, only 36.5% of women who failed to have an officially sanctioned abortion gave birth to children. Many simply left Leningrad, leaving no information about the future fate of the fetus. And more than 20,96 most likely either had a self-abortion or used the services of clandestine doctors. In any case, an analysis of the causes of miscarriages, carried out by gynecologists in Leningrad in 1938, showed that 83.4% of women cannot at all clearly explain the reason why their pregnancy was terminated h. The adoption of the law banning abortion coincided with the beginning of the great terror in the USSR, establishment of total surveillance of the population through a system of political control. Almost from the first days of the existence of Soviet power, its structures paid special attention to the control over the life of citizens in the sphere of private space. As a social anomaly, an artificial miscarriage should have been recorded by a system of special control bodies. Indeed, such bodies were created. They became the social and legal cabinets for the fight against abortion, although initially these bodies were conceived as institutions designed to take care of the health of the population. According to the instructions of the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR dated October 25, 1939, the social and legal cabinet organized ... regular, timely receipt from medical commissions for issuing abortion permits of a list of women who were denied abortion (no later than 24 hours after the meeting of the commission) for organizing patronage (that was the name of home visiting. - I. L.). Formally, the instruction indicated that patronage should not be of an investigative nature, consultation workers were not recommended to enter into conversations with neighbors and relatives of a pregnant woman1. But in practice, in the conditions of communal apartments, dormitories, in an atmosphere of psychosis of general denunciation, neither pregnancy, nor criminal abortion, and even more so, verification by state bodies could not go unnoticed. Doctors of the Central Obstetric and Gynecological Institute in Leningrad, better known as the D. O. Otto Hospital, stated in a 1939 memo: When visiting at home, patronage nurses are met with a bad reception from women who have been denied permission to have an abortion, especially in in cases where the pregnancy did not survive (the usual explanation is that she lifted something heavy, stumbled, her stomach ached, etc.) The Abortion Prohibition Act was in effect until 1955. For nearly 20 years, the authorities viewed spontaneous abortion as something of an anomaly. In the context of this discourse, the forms of social policy in the field of reproductive behavior of the population were modified - a transition was made from care, a set of medical and protective measures to maintain women's health, to strict control, based on the punitive legal realities of the state of Stalinist socialism. F. 9156. Op. 4. D. 695 - L. 50.51.2 TsGA NTD. F. 193 - Op. 1-1. D. 399. L. 13. Abbreviations TsGA St. Petersburg - Central State Archive of St. Petersburg. TsGA IPD - Central State Archive of Historical and Political Documents, St. Petersburg. TsGA NTD - Central State Archive of Scientific and Technical Documentation, St. Petersburg. List of sources Abortions in the USSR. Issue. 2. M.: TsSU, 1927. Vidgorchik Ya. A. Child mortality among St. Petersburg workers / / Public doctor. 1914. - 2. Vinogradskaya P. Winged Eros comrade. Kollontai // Communist morality and family relations. L .: Surf, 1926. Gents A. Data on abortions in the USSR // Statistical Review. 1928. - 12. S. 113. Drobizhev V. 3. At the origins of Soviet demography. M.: Thought, 1987. Lenin V. I. Working class and neo-Malthusianism // Poly. coll. op. Moscow: Politizdat, 1962. Vol. M .: Gospolitizdat, 1951. T. 13. Strumilin S. G. On the problem of birth rate in a working family // Problems of Labor Economics. Fav. cit.: In 5 t. M.: Gospolitizdat, 1964. T. 3. Man in the family circle. Essays on the history of the private life of Europe before the beginning of the New Age. M.: RGGU, 1996. Schitz I. Ya. Diary of a great turning point - Paris: B L. 1991. Engelstein L. The Keys to Happiness. Sex and Search of Modernity in Fin-de-Siecle Russia. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1992. Goldman W. Women, the State and Revolutoin. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
social politics bolshevik homeless
The transition to the New Economic Policy (NEP), which took place at the Tenth Congress of the RCP (b) in March 1921, contributed to the fact that, along with elements of economic transformations (replacement of food requisitioning with a tax in kind, attraction of foreign capital, free trade), the modernization of the social protection system is also taking place population.
There is a change in the rendering of the principles of social security of the population of the USSR. While maintaining the social assistance system that has been in effect since the time of the policy of "war communism", there is a reduction in rations in favor of monetary allowances. There is a reorganization of the bodies that carry out measures for the social protection of the population, in particular, many functions of the People's Commissariat for Social Security, as well as local authorities (Gubsobesov), have disappeared or been curtailed. There is also a gradual process of folding new forms of social work, instead of the old system of state social security, such as state support for the disabled and families of military personnel, social insurance for workers and employees, and provision of peasants in the form of mutual assistance.
According to the order of the Council of People's Commissars, the Central Committee of the RCP (b) dated May 20, 1921, workers who had previously been recalled to other organizations were returned to the jurisdiction of social security agencies. By the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, adopted on September 30, 1921, the NKSO received the right to independently procure raw materials, food, equipment and other essentials, as well as the opportunity to organize their own production enterprises, sewing workshops, and agricultural enterprises. The final point in this process was the transfer of the main bodies of the NKSO from civilian supply to self-sufficiency, except for the control and inspection apparatus. Also, it should be noted that self-taxation of the population becomes an additional source of maintenance of social security institutions.
The main emphasis on the issue of social security, as in the previous period of the civil war, was fixed on measures of social support for the families of Red Army soldiers. On July 14, 1921, for the implementation of the above goals, the NKSO was transferred to the apparatus of the Central Commission for Assistance to the Red Army. The main assistance to this category of citizens was to support them with the necessary shoes and clothing, they received the Red Star ration, disabled family members were provided with front-line Red Army rations in half. According to the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of May 14, 1921 “On Improving the Statement of the Social Welfare of Workers, Peasants and Families of the Red Army”, the ownerless property of various Soviet funds, income from taxation of various kinds of entertainment institutions, as well as the organization of performances became a source of funds for social support for military personnel. According to available archival data, in the early 1920s. The NCSO provided pensions and benefits to more than nine million military families. Their payment was carried out mainly at the expense of local budgets, and only 25% was taken over by the state budget. At the end of 1924, the “Code of Laws on Benefits and Benefits for Red Army Soldiers and Their Families” was adopted, according to which benefits meant, first of all, cash benefits (for treatment, for the burial of deceased relatives, compensation for lost property), advantages over other categories of the population in obtaining housing, the right to receive free medical services, etc. An important feature of this legal act was that minor children, as well as disabled parents, together with the spouses of those drafted into the army, received monthly benefits throughout their entire service life.
One of the directions in the field of social protection was a change in the system of social insurance. During the transition to the NEP, problems arose in social security, conflicts between workers and the administration on the basis of the issuance of benefits in case of disability became more frequent. On October 10, 1921, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) supported the proposal of V. I. Lenin to instruct the Presidium of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, together with the Supreme Economic Council, the People's Commissariat of Health and Social Security, to develop the issue of insurance for workers in connection with the new economic policy. The main provisions of state social insurance were set out in the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR "On social insurance of persons engaged in wage labor" issued on November 15, 1921. It was established that it should be carried out in all enterprises and institutions of state, cooperative, private, concession. Compulsory social insurance extended to all employees and was carried out for workers in state industry at the expense of enterprises, private and rental, at the expense of entrepreneurs. The social insurance system was beneficial for the workers. The insurance budget consisted of contributions from employers, as well as state appropriations; workers and employees themselves did not make any contributions to the insurance fund.
It should be noted that if during the period of “war communism” social insurance was ranked as an institution of bourgeois law and, accordingly, a hidden form of exploitation, then after the introduction of the NEP, the Bolshevik party returned to the principles of social insurance. One of the positive moments was the rejection of many radical and utopian principles of the “war communism” period. As a result of the improvement of basic economic indicators, the growth of industry and agricultural production, many provisions of the doctrine of social protection are being aligned with practice, especially in terms of relations with workers. In particular, there is an increase in social insurance coverage (in 1924 the state scheme covered 5.5 million people, in 1926 already 8.5 million, in 1928 -11 million people). According to social policy researcher N. Lebina, these indicators testify to the legislative expansion of the social insurance scheme, as well as to the increase in the labor force, as such.
By the end of the NEP period, old-age pensions were also introduced. They were paid to men and women aged 60 and 55, respectively, who had 25 years of work experience, and not just elderly disabled people.
The trade union organizations contributed to the implementation of the measures declared by the Soviet authorities for the implementation of social insurance measures. For example, the trade unions of the BSSR launched work on the implementation of the decree of the Soviet government.
On December 25, 1921, the expanded plenum of the Sovprafbel recommended that the decree on social insurance of workers and employees be immediately adopted for execution, and assistance be provided to the social security authorities in their work. In January 1922, a department of social insurance was created under the People's Commissariat for Social Security of the BSSR. The foundations of the system for providing workers and employees with social insurance were enshrined in the Labor Code of 1922 (Chapter XVII). At the expense of social insurance funds, workers and employees were provided with benefits for temporary and permanent loss of working capacity, as well as for unemployment; assisted in the care of newborns; the insured enjoyed free medical care;
preventive measures were taken. In connection with the denationalization of a significant part of industrial enterprises and their transfer to economic accounting, by the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of December 21, 1922, the right to carry out social insurance at work was transferred from the People's Commissariat of Social Security to the disposal of the CNT.
An important measure to maintain the unemployed and alleviate unemployment was the provision of labor assistance to workers. On the one hand, according to researcher O.Yu. Bukharenkova, this policy made it possible to attract a significant number of the unemployed population to work, which contributed to the preservation and improvement of their skills. On the other hand, the labor activity of the unemployed contributed to the improvement of cities and the development of industry. The types of such support included the organization and conduct of public works, as well as the creation of teams and artels from the unemployed.
To public works in 1922-1923. mostly unskilled men were involved. The work included logging, land reclamation, repair work on the railway, cleaning up cities. People were employed in public works for no more than 2-3 months, since the obligatory principle of their organization was the constant turnover of the unemployed. During the period of participation in the work, the unemployed were not removed from the queue at the stock exchange and received benefits if they were entitled to it. On average, no more than 5-7% of the unemployed were employed in public works.
In addition to financial resources for the organization of public works, food products were also distributed. However, their supply was not always timely. So, P. Zavodovsky, head of the Labor Market Department, reported in a letter to the People's Commissariat of Food dated March 22, 1923, that the grain resources intended for the organization of public works and transferred to the places according to the orders of the People's Commissariat of the clan dated January 25 and 31, 1923. in many provinces have not yet been received. There was information about non-receipt of these resources from Ivanovo-Voznesensk, the Kyrgyz Republic, Dagestan, Rostov-on-Don, and so on. Underfunding hampered the work, which in the conditions of high unemployment was extremely dangerous.
Beginning in 1921, unemployment benefits were provided only to highly skilled workers who had no means of subsistence, as well as to low-skilled workers with three years of work experience. The latter requirement excluded the vast mass of the unemployed from potential recipients of benefits. There were differences in benefits depending on the degree of risk, in particular, the sick were in more favorable conditions, in contrast to the unemployed and long-term disabled. Between 1924 and 1928 monthly pensions paid amounted to 31-36% of the average wage, while temporary disability benefits reached 95% of the average earnings.
The experiments of the Soviet government to connect the market with the socialist economy during the years of the NEP contributed to the development of various economic structures, including in the housing sector, where the system of payments for services was restored. In the late 1920s, payment mechanisms were widely discussed, including not only accounting for the quality of housing, its area, volume and composition of services consumed, but also the income of residents.
One can agree with the point of view of some researchers that industrial workers and children became the key objects of social protection during the NEP period, while the peasantry was forced out of the social policy of the Soviet state. This period of time is characterized by broad discussions about the essence and basic principles of social problems and mechanisms for their solution. At the same time, there was also a certain shift from the proposal of a value consensus to a value conflict, which was associated with the historical conditions for the existence of the Soviet state and the struggle against various social stigmatized groups (“kulaks”, “enemies of the people”). These trends in the growth of conflict situations are intensifying along with the strengthening of the regime of Stalin's personal power.
Thus, the important features of the NEP era were achievements in the field of social security, which were expressed, first of all, in the fact that it covered almost the entire population of the country. The social security agencies of the USSR paid out pensions, disability benefits, for the loss of a breadwinner, and so on. At the same time, in the conditions of self-supporting relations, the social security system did not provide a high level of social payments, the peasantry was deprived of social assistance from the state.
