Definition of psychology as a science. Psychology as a science Psychology as a science definition authors

Any science is based on some everyday, empirical experience of people, but the situation is different with psychology. Each of us has a store of worldly psychological knowledge. There are outstanding worldly psychologists, but the average person also has certain psychological knowledge. Therefore, there are five differences between everyday and scientific knowledge.

1) Everyday psychological knowledge is specific, it is confined to specific situations, people, tasks. They are characterized by specificity, limited tasks, situations and persons to which they apply.

One feature of scientific psychological knowledge should be noted: it often coincides with worldly knowledge in its outward form, that is, it is expressed in the same words. However, the inner content, the meanings of these words, as a rule, are different. Everyday terms are usually more vague and ambiguous.

2) Everyday psychological knowledge is intuitive.

This is due to a special way of obtaining them - they are acquired through practical experience.

3) Methods of knowledge transfer and the very possibility of their transfer. In the field of practical psychology, this possibility is very limited. This is directly related to the peculiarity of everyday psychological experience - its concrete and intuitive nature.

4) Methods for obtaining knowledge of everyday and scientific psychology. In worldly psychology, we are forced to confine ourselves to observations and reflections. In scientific psychology, experiment is added to these methods.

5) The difference, and at the same time the advantage, of scientific psychology lies in the fact that it has at its disposal extensive, diverse and sometimes unique factual material, inaccessible in its entirety to any bearer of everyday psychology. This material is accumulated and analyzed, including in special branches of psychological science, such as developmental psychology, educational psychology, patho- and neuropsychology, labor and engineering psychology, social psychology, zoopsychology, etc.

Thus, scientific psychology, firstly, relies on everyday psychological experience, secondly, it derives its tasks from it, and finally, thirdly, at the last stage it is checked by it.

The formation of psychology as a science of the processes, functions and mechanisms of the psyche was long and controversial. The earliest natural-scientific model of the psyche belongs to I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905). He identified three links:

1) The initial link is external irritation and its transformation by the sense organs into the process of nervous excitation transmitted to the brain.

2) The middle link - the processes of excitation and inhibition in the brain and the emergence of sensations based on them.

3) The final link is external movements.

Thus, according to Sechenov, actions and deeds are conditioned by external influences: “The initial cause of any action always lies in external sensory excitement, because without it no thought is possible.”

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Three groups of mental phenomena are usually distinguished:

1) mental processes.

2) mental states.

3) mental properties.

Mental process - the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction. The end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity.

Mental state - a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

Mental properties are the highest and most stable regulators of a person's mental activity.

It is worth dwelling on the relationship between psychology and philosophy, because the issues of psychology were studied within the framework of philosophy for a long time, and only in the middle of the 19th century. psychology became an independent science, having separated from philosophy. In addition, there are questions in psychology itself that cannot be solved experimentally. When faced with problems of this kind, psychologists are forced to turn to philosophy and thereby use the conclusions that they are offered by representatives of a related science - philosophy: problems of the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of higher forms of human thinking, the influence of society on the individual and the individual on society, methodological problems psychology. Thus, modern psychology and philosophy are still developing together, complementing each other. There is an integration and interpenetration of the knowledge of these sciences at the theoretical and methodological level.

Another science that finds a lot of interests in common with psychology in the development of problems related to society and the individual is sociology. Mutual support is also observed here, but already at the level of research methodology. So, for example, sociology borrows from social psychology methods of studying personality and human relations. At the same time, psychology widely uses in its experimental research methods of collecting scientific information, which are traditionally sociological. These methods include, first of all, surveys and questionnaires. There are also quite a few problems that psychologists and sociologists are trying to solve together. These problems include: relationships between people, national psychology, psychology of economics and state policy. This should also include the problems of socialization and social attitudes, their formation and transformation.

Also closely related to psychology is pedagogy. At first glance, these sciences are inseparable, since the upbringing and education of children cannot but take into account the psychological characteristics of the individual. Following this logic, one cannot doubt the truth of this judgment. However, in practice the situation is somewhat different. If psychology developed within the framework of philosophy, then pedagogy was initially formed as an independent science. As a result, psychology and pedagogy have taken shape as independent sciences and exist separately. Unfortunately, in practice there is still no close understanding between psychologists and teachers.

Another, no less famous example of the relationship between history and psychology is the use of the historical method in psychology. The essence of this method is that in order to understand the nature of any mental phenomenon, it is necessary to trace its phylo- and ontogenetic development from elementary to more complex forms. In order to realize what the highest forms of the human psyche are, it is necessary to trace their development in children.

Psychology is no less closely related to the medical and biological sciences. The connection of psychology with these sciences is due to the dual nature of man as a social and at the same time biological being. Most mental phenomena, and, above all, mental processes, have a physiological condition, therefore, the knowledge gained by physiologists and biologists is used in psychology in order to better understand certain mental phenomena.

It should also be noted that the main feature of psychology is that it is associated not only with the social sciences, but also with technical and biological ones. Man is a participant in all technological and production processes. It is practically impossible to organize the production process without human participation. Man has been and remains the main participant in this process. Therefore, it is no coincidence that psychological science considers man as an integral part of technological progress.

Thus, modern psychology is closely connected with various fields of science and practice. It can be argued that wherever a person is involved, there is a place for psychological science. Therefore, it is no coincidence that psychology is gaining more and more popularity and distribution every year. The development of psychology, its introduction into all spheres of practical and scientific activity has led to the emergence of various branches of psychology.

Modern psychology is a widely developed field of knowledge, including a number of separate disciplines and scientific areas:

1) Social psychology - studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationship with people, with a group, the psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, the press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people).

2) Pedagogical psychology - studies the patterns of personality development in the process of training, education.

3) Age psychology - studies the patterns of development of a normal healthy person, psychological characteristics and patterns inherent in each age period: from infancy to old age, and in this regard is divided into child psychology, psychology of youth and adulthood, gerontopsychology (psychology of old age).

4) Child psychology - studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activities, the whole personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development.

5) Labor psychology - considers the psychological characteristics of a person's labor activity, the patterns of development of labor skills.

6) Engineering psychology - studies the regularities of the processes of interaction between a person and modern technology in order to use them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems, new types of equipment.

7) Aviation, space psychology - specific areas of engineering psychology analyze the psychological characteristics of the activity of a pilot, astronaut.

8) Medical psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor's activity and the patient's behavior, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy. In clinical psychology, which studies the manifestations and causes of various disorders in the psyche and behavior of a person, as well as mental changes occurring during various illnesses, pathopsychology is included, which studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the breakdown of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology. Psychophysiology studies the physiological foundations of mental activity, and differential psychology studies individual differences in the psyche of people.

9) Legal psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in the criminal process (psychology of testimonies, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the personality of a criminal.

10) Military psychology - studies human behavior in combat conditions.

11) Psychology of advertising - deals with the assessment of the needs or expectations of consumers, the development of psychological means of influencing people in order to create demand for a marketable product. 12) The psychology of religion - tries to understand and explain the behavior of believers in general or representatives of various sects.

13) Environmental psychology - studies the most effective ways to improve conditions in settlements where human activities take place. She pays special attention to the problems of noise, pollution of the environment with toxic substances and waste and their influence on the human psyche, the problems of the mutual influence of nature and man. 14) The debatable area is parapsychology, which studies the manifestations and mechanisms of the emergence of unusual, “paranormal” human abilities.

Thus, modern psychology is characterized by a process of differentiation that branches psychology into separate branches, which often diverge and differ significantly from each other, although they retain a common subject of study - facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche.

The main methods of obtaining facts in psychology are:

Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his daily practice. There are types of observation: slice (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years), selective, continuous and special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study).

Observation consists of the following processes:

1) Definition of the task and purpose (for what, for what purpose?).

2) Choice of object, object and situation (what to observe?).

3) The choice of the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most provides the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?).

4) The choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?).

5) Processing and analysis of the received information (what is the result?).

Observation is also an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

Conversation as a psychological method provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the student of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified.

A natural experiment is carried out in the natural conditions of life, study, work of people, and people do not suspect that an experiment is being carried out on them (but its results must be recorded, for example, with a hidden camera). Natural experiments make it possible to reveal more reliable information, but they cannot be carried out repeatedly, since they lose their naturalness and secrecy from the subjects.

Test method - a method of testing, establishing certain mental qualities of a person. The test is a short-term task, the same for all subjects, the results of which determine the presence and level of development of certain mental qualities of a person. They can be prognostic and diagnostic, they must be scientifically substantiated, reliable, valid and reveal stable psychological characteristics.

Our whole life is an endless series of events, situations, deeds, meetings, conversations, changes, victories and defeats, hopes and disappointments. In other words, a person's life is a constant interaction of his inner world with the surrounding reality. Every day we wake up, start our day, do different things, communicate with a lot of people, go to work, grow a business or do something else. Human life in the modern world is life in the world of high technologies, an endless flow of information, rapid development and change. And in order to meet all the requirements of the surrounding reality, a person must be developed, able to overcome difficulties and have an unbending inner core that will always support and help to remain strong. The modern world is ready to absorb a person in a matter of seconds, make him a part of the gray mass, depersonalize, devastate and throw him to the sidelines. And if a person is not ready for this, then defeat cannot be avoided. But there is a way to emerge victorious in this fight.

One of the most important knowledge for a person in our time is knowledge in the field of psychology, and one of the most important skills is the ability to apply them in practice. To understand people, to be able to find a common language with them and communicate, to be able to instantly adapt to any situation, to always help yourself and others, you need to understand psychology. So that the problems and stress that today with great force put pressure on a person do not break you or your loved ones, and you or they can continue on their way, you need to understand human psychology. To understand others at a deep level, to be able to nurture yourself, raise your children, influence others, you need to know the nuances of people's psychology. To achieve success, achieve new results, conquer new heights, live in prosperity, harmony and well-being, you need to have important knowledge - knowledge about human psychology.

Given the importance of psychological knowledge, as well as the reasons that motivate people to grow and develop, their desire to become better and improve their lives, we have created this course called "Human Psychology". In the lessons of this course, we examine in detail very important things: we reveal the main and key problems of human psychology, the stages and patterns of its development and the formation of the characteristics of its behavior and communication with people. This course provides an opportunity to answer questions about how to understand human psychology, how to influence your life, those around you and, most importantly, yourself. The study of psychology and the application of the acquired knowledge in life contributes to personal growth, improving personal life, establishing excellent relationships, achieving success in the professional field and other areas of activity. This course "Human Psychology" is an online training consisting of lessons that contain interesting theoretical information about human psychology, examples (experiments, tests, experiments) are given, and, most importantly, a large number of practical tips are given that you can put into practice already on the first day of acquaintance with the training. At the end of the course there are links to useful materials: books (including audio books), videos, seminar recordings, experiments and quotes about psychology.

Psychology(from the ancient Greek “knowledge of the soul”) is a science that studies structures and processes inaccessible to external observation (sometimes called the “soul”) in order to explain human behavior, as well as the behavior of individuals, groups and collectives.

It is a complex, but important and interesting discipline to study. As it has probably already become clear, human psychology is a very exciting area of ​​​​scientific knowledge and covers many sections that you can get acquainted with if you wish, on your own. You can even say that it is from this moment that your self-development will begin, because. you will already decide on your own what exactly you would like to learn and begin to master new knowledge. Human psychology, in itself, has many properties, one of which is the fear of everything new and incomprehensible. For many people, this is an obstacle to self-development and achieving the desired results. We recommend that you put aside any fears and doubts, and start studying the materials of our site and this course. After a while, you will be proud of yourself, thanks to new skills and results achieved.

Object of psychology- is a person. From this we can conclude that any psychologist (or interested in psychology) is a researcher of himself, due to which a close relationship between the objective and the subjective arises in psychological theories.

Subject of psychology in different historical epochs has always been understood in different ways and from the standpoint of different areas of psychological science:

• Soul. Until the beginning of the 18th century, all researchers adhered to this position.
• Phenomena of consciousness. Direction: English empirical associationist psychology. Main representatives: David Gartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Herbert Spencer.
• The direct experience of the subject. Direction: structuralism. Main representatives: Wilhelm Wundt.
• Adaptability. Direction: functionalism. Chief Representatives: William James.
• Origin of mental activities. Direction: psychophysiology. Main representatives: Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov.
• Behavior. Direction: behaviorism. Main representatives: John Watson.
• Unconscious. Direction: psychoanalysis. Main representatives: Sigmund Freud.
• Information processing processes and their results. Direction: Gestalt psychology. Main representatives: Max Wertheimer.
• Person's personal experience. Direction: humanistic psychology. Main representatives: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May.

The main sections of psychology:

• Acmeology
• differential psychology
• gender psychology
• cognitive psychology
• Virtual psychology
• Military psychology
• Applied psychology
• Engineering psychology
• Clinical (medical psychology)
• Neuropsychology
• pathopsychology
• Psychosomatics and psychology of corporality
• Oncopsychology
• Psychotherapy
• Pedagogical psychology
• Psychology of art
• Psychology of parenting
• Labor psychology
• Sports Psychology
• Psychology of management
• Economic psychology
• Ethnopsychology
• legal psychology
• criminal psychology
• Forensic psychology

As it is easy to see, there are many sections of psychology, and different directions study different aspects of a person's personality and his activities. Which section will be to your liking personally, you can determine by reading each of them yourself. In our course, we consider human psychology in general, without highlighting any areas, types or sections, but making it possible to apply new skills in any area of ​​life.

Application of psychological knowledge

The application of psychological knowledge is necessary and useful in absolutely any field of human activity: family, study, science, work, business, friendship, love, creativity, etc. But it is important to learn how to apply relevant knowledge in different situations. After all, what can work effectively in communication with work colleagues may not work at all in a relationship with a loved one. What is suitable for a family may not be useful in creativity. Although, of course, there are general techniques that are universal and operate almost always and everywhere.

Knowledge of psychology gives a person many advantages: they develop and make them more erudite, educated, interesting, diversified. A person with psychological knowledge is able to understand the true causes of events happening to him (and others), to realize the motives of his behavior and understand the motives of the behavior of others. Knowledge of human psychology is the ability to solve many problems with significantly greater speed and efficiency, increase the ability to withstand adversity and failure, the ability to achieve outstanding results where others cannot. The skill of applying psychological knowledge, provided it is systematically and regularly consolidated, will make you a stronger personality with significant advantages over the rest. The list of all the advantages can be very, very long. But, as they say, it is better to see once than hear a hundred times. And drawing an analogy with this saying, we can say that it is better to apply once than read a hundred times.

It is also worth noting that the knowledge of psychology has long been applied by you in everyday life. But this is only done spontaneously, unconsciously and without understanding what strength, power and potential this knowledge actually carries in itself. And if you really want to get closer to your “best self” and improve your life, this can and should be deliberately learned.

How to learn it?

Naturally, knowledge about psychology is not present in us from birth, but is formed during life. Someone, of course, has a predisposition to psychology. Such people often become psychologists, intuitively understand people, look at life a little differently. Others have to specifically study psychological knowledge, put more effort and patience in order to assimilate it. But, in any case, you can learn everything. And to master the skill of applying psychological knowledge - even more so. And, you can do it yourself.

There are two aspects of learning this skill - theoretical and practical.

• Theoretical aspect of psychology- this is the knowledge that is taught in educational institutions, and is also given in the presented course;
• Practical aspect of psychology- this is the application of new knowledge in life, i.e. transition from theory to practice.

But it often happens that a theory remains a theory, because people simply do not know what to do with the information that they now own. Any lessons, courses, trainings, lectures, seminars, etc. should be aimed at the practical application of knowledge in real life.

With this feature in mind, the course, the introduction to which you are now reading, was compiled. The purpose of this course is not only to give you a good theoretical base of psychological knowledge, but also to teach you how to use this knowledge. All lessons of the course have a two-way focus - theory and practice. The theoretical part contains the most important knowledge on the topic of human psychology and represents their quintessence. The practical part, in turn, consists of recommendations, tips, psychological methods and techniques designed for you to use them.

This course "Human Psychology" is:

• Systematized and understandable to any person material, presented in a simple, interesting and accessible form.
• A collection of useful tips and tricks that are easy to put into practice from day one.
• The opportunity to see yourself and your life, as well as other people from a new, previously unknown side.
• The opportunity to increase the level of one's intellect, education and erudition by several levels, which undoubtedly plays a significant role in the life of a modern person.
• The opportunity to find the main motivating force that will encourage you to go only forward and achieve success.
• The opportunity to grow as a person and improve the level and quality of your life.
• The opportunity to learn how to establish contact with any people (from your own children and parents to bosses and hooligans on the street).
• The way to come to harmony and happiness.

Do you want to test your knowledge?

If you want to test your theoretical knowledge on the topic of the course and understand how it suits you, you can take our test. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question.

Psychology lessons

Having studied a lot of theoretical materials, choosing the most important and adapting it for practical application, we have created a number of lessons on human psychology. They discuss the most popular sections and areas of psychology, provide data from scientific research and opinions of specialists. But the most important thing is that the emphasis of each lesson is on practical advice and recommendations.

How to take classes?

The information from the lessons of this course is fully adapted for practical use and is suitable for absolutely everyone. The most important thing here, as has been said more than once, is the transition from theory to practice. You can read smart books for years and know a lot of things, but all this will be equal to zero if it remains just a baggage of knowledge.

You can divide the study of all lessons into several stages. For example, set yourself the task of studying 2 lessons a week: 1 day - studying the material, 2 days - testing in practice, 1 day - day off, etc. But you need not just to read, but to study: carefully, consciously, purposefully. The very tips and practical recommendations presented in the lessons are important not just to check or apply once, but to systematically implement them into your daily activities. Develop the habit of always remembering that you are studying human psychology - this will automatically make you want to apply something new in life again and again. The skill of applying psychological knowledge in practice will eventually become honed and automatic, because it is more dependent on experience. And our lessons are just aimed at teaching you how to get this experience and give it the right direction.

Additions and auxiliary materials:

Psychological games and exercises

Games and exercises created specifically to learn the features of the human psyche. There are different types of such games and exercises: for children and for adults, mass and single, for men and women, arbitrary and purposeful, etc. The use of psychological games and exercises helps people understand others and themselves, form some qualities and get rid of others, etc. This includes exercises for the development of various qualities, overcoming stress, increasing self-esteem, role-playing, educational, recreational games and many other games and exercises.

Introduction

.The subject of psychology as a science and its main categories

1Psychology as a science

2Object and subject of psychology

1Place of psychology in modern scientific knowledge

2General psychology

3Industry psychology

.Test

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Psychology has its origins in the depths of millennia. The term "psychology" - (from the Greek. psyche- soul, and logos-science) means "the doctrine of the soul". It originated in antiquity, at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e, when people first began to ask questions about the meaning of the soul, about the differences in the souls of animals and humans, about the functions and abilities of the soul.

The study of psychology cannot be reduced to a simple enumeration of the problems, ideas and ideas of various psychological schools. In order to understand them, it is necessary to understand their internal connection, the single logic of the formation of psychology as a science.

Why study psychology? We all live among people and by the will of circumstances must understand, take into account the psychology of people, take into account our individual characteristics of the psyche and personality. We are all psychologists to one degree or another. But our worldly psychology will only benefit and be enriched if we supplement it with scientific psychological knowledge.

Psychology has come a long way of development, there has been a change in the understanding of the object, subject and goals of psychology. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and internal mental processes and the practical application of the knowledge gained. Psychology is very closely connected with many other sciences: exact, natural, medical, philosophical, etc. It is a very branched system of sciences, which includes both fundamental branches of psychology, united by the term "general psychology", which actually studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and form. It also summarizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts, as well as special psychological sciences.

1. The subject of psychology as a science and its main categories

.1 Psychology as a science

Psychology as a science has special qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. As a system of proven knowledge, few people know psychology, mainly only those who are specially engaged in it, solving scientific and practical problems. At the same time, as a system of life phenomena, psychology is familiar to every person. It is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect the basic mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe in other people. In scientific usage, the term " psychology"appeared for the first time in the 16th century. Initially, it belonged to a special science that studied the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that each person easily detects in his own consciousnessas a result introspection. Later, in the 17th-19th centuries, the scope of research by psychologists expanded significantly, including unconscious mental processes (the unconscious) and activityIn the 20th century, psychological research went beyond the phenomena around which they had been concentrated for centuries. In this regard, the name "psychology" has partly lost its original, rather narrow meaning, when it referred only to subjective, directly perceived and experienced by a person phenomena consciousness. However, until now, according to the tradition that has developed over the centuries, this science retains its former name.

Since the 19th century psychology becomes an independent and experimental field of scientific knowledge.

1.2 Object and subject of psychology

To begin with, it is worth introducing the definitions of "subject" and "object".

An objectpart of the surrounding reality to which human activity is directed.

Thing- part of the object of interest to the researcher.

The object of psychologyis the psyche.

In psychology, as a science, there are two approaches to understanding the psyche.

· Idealistic, in it the psyche is considered as primary realitythat exists independently of the material world.

· Materialistic, it says that the psyche is property of the brainprovide the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Subject of psychologymultifaceted, as it includes many processes, phenomena, patterns.

Under subjectgeneral psychology assumes the pattern of development and functioning of the psyche, as well as the individual characteristics of its manifestation.

What is the subject matter of psychology? Primarily, psychehuman and animal, which includes many subjective phenomena.

With the help of some, such as sensations and perception, Attentionand memory, imagination, thinking and speech, a person cognizes the world. Therefore, they are often called cognitive processes. Other phenomena govern it communicationwith people, direct actions and deeds.

They are called mental properties and states of the personality, they include needs, motives, goals, interests, will, feelings and emotions, inclinations and abilities, knowledge and consciousness. In addition, psychology studies human communication and behavior, their dependence on mental phenomena and, in turn, the dependence of the formation and development of mental phenomena on them.

1. Psyche - a subjective image of the objective world, forms in the process of cognition of activity and communication.

In the psyche, such phenomena are distinguished as (Fig. 1):

Rice. 1 Types of mental phenomena.

v mental processes- these are the elementary units that we can distinguish in mental activity, its "atoms".

) Cognitive:

Ø Feeling(mental reflection of individual properties and conditions of the external environment that directly affect our senses)

Ø Perception(the mental process of forming the image of objects and phenomena of the external world.)

Ø Thinking(the ability to solve new, urgently emerging problems in situations where the previous, already known solutions do not work.)

Ø Representation(the process of mentally recreating images of objects and phenomena that do not currently affect the human senses.)

Ø Imagination(this is a reflection of reality in new, unusual, unexpected combinations and connections.)

)Integrative:

Ø Speech(This is the ability to communicate using words, sounds, and other elements of language.)

Ø Memory(the ability to remember, save and at the right time to get (reproduce) the necessary information.)

) Emotional:

Ø Emotions(fast and short elements of feelings, their situational manifestation.)

4)Regulatory

Ø Will(the ability to maintain focus in spite of difficulties, interference, distractions.)

Ø Attention(concentrated energy of consciousness directed at a particular object.)

v mental states

Ø Mood(a fairly long emotional process of low intensity, which forms an emotional background for ongoing mental processes.)

Ø frustration(a mental state that occurs in a situation of real or perceived impossibility to satisfy certain needs, or, more simply, in a situation of inconsistency of desires with available opportunities.)

Ø Affect(an emotional process characterized by short duration and high intensity, accompanied by pronounced motor manifestations and changes in the functioning of internal organs.)

Ø Stress(a state of mental stress that occurs in a person in the process of activity in the most difficult, difficult conditions, both in everyday life and under special circumstances.)

v Mental Properties

Ø Temperament(sustainable association of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity.)

Ø Character(this is a set of basic personality traits on which forms of social behavior depend, human actions that are designed to influence others.)

Ø Orientation(settings that have become personality traits.)

Ø Capabilities(these are personality traits that are conditions for the successful implementation of a certain type of activity.)

2. Consciousness - the highest stage in the development of the psyche, the result of the comprehensive development of a person in the process of communication and labor.

. Unconscious - a form reflecting reality in which a person is not aware of its sources, and the reflected reality merges with experiences (dreams).

. Behavior - external manifestation of a person's mental activity, his actions and actions.

. Activity - a system of goals, tasks, actions and operations aimed at realizing the needs and interests of a person.

2. Psychology, its main branches and place in the system of sciences

.1 Place of psychology in modern scientific knowledge

Sciences related to psychology:

Ø Philosophyis the ideological and methodological basis of psychology

Ø Natural sciences (biology, physics)help to study the physiological processes occurring in the nervous system and brain and reveal the processes, mechanisms and functions of the psyche.

Ø medical sciencesallow understanding the pathologies of mental development and finding ways to solve them (psychotherapy).

Ø historical sciences,show how the psyche developed at various stages of the evolution of society.

Ø Sociology,helps to solve problems of social psychology.

Ø Pedagogical Sciences,help in training, education, personality formation.

Ø Exact sciences (mathematical),provide quantitative methods for collecting and processing data.

Ø Technical science,help in the development of technical means for studying the development and correction of the psyche.

Ø Cybernetics,helps to study the processes of mental self-regulation.

.2 General psychology

General psychology- this is a science that studies how cognitive processes, states, patterns and properties of the human psyche arise and form, and also summarizes various psychological studies, forms psychological knowledge, principles, methods and basic concepts.

The main subject of study of general psychology are such forms of mental activity as memory, character, thinking, temperament, perception, motivation, emotions, sensations and other processes, which we will discuss in more detail below. They are considered by this science in close connection with the life and activities of man, as well as with the special characteristics of individual ethnic groups and historical background. Cognitive processes, human personality and its development inside and outside society, interpersonal relationships in different groups of people are subject to detailed study. General psychology is of great importance for such sciences as pedagogy, sociology, philosophy, art history, linguistics, etc. And the results of research conducted in the field of general psychology can be considered the starting point for all branches of psychological science.

Methods of studying general psychology.

v Observation This is the most ancient way of knowing. Its simplest form is everyday observations. Every person uses it in their daily life. In general psychology, there are such types of observation as short-term, long-term, selective, continuous and special.

The standard monitoring procedure consists of several steps:

Ø Setting goals and objectives;

Ø Definition of the situation, subject and object;

Ø Determination of methods that will have the least impact on the object under study, and provide the necessary data;

Ø Determining how data is maintained;

Ø Processing of received data.

outside surveillance(an outsider) is considered objective. It can be direct or indirect. Also exists introspection. It can be both immediate - in the current moment, and delayed, based on memories, entries from diaries, memoirs, etc. In this case, the person himself analyzes his thoughts, feelings and experiences.

Observation is an integral part of the other two methods - conversation and experiment.

v Conversation as a psychological method, it involves direct / indirect, oral / written collection of information about the person being studied and his activities, as a result of which psychological phenomena characteristic of him are determined. There are such types of conversations as collecting information about a person and his life, interviews, questionnaires and various types of questionnaires.

Best of all, there is a personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined. Two-way conversation gives the best result and provides more information than just answers to questions.

But the main method of research is experiment.

v Experiment - this is the active intervention of a specialist in the process of the subject's activity in order to create certain conditions under which a psychological fact will be revealed.

There is a laboratory experiment taking place under special conditions using special equipment. All actions of the subject are directed by the instruction.

v Another method - tests . These are tests that serve to establish any mental qualities in a person. Tests are short-term and similar tasks for all, according to the results, the performance of which determines the presence of certain mental qualities in the subjects and the level of their development. Different tests are designed to make some predictions or make a diagnosis. They must always have a scientific basis, and must also be reliable and reveal accurate characteristics.

The subject of general psychology- this is the psyche itself, as a form of interaction between living beings and the world, which is expressed in their ability to translate their impulses into reality and function in the world based on the available information. And the human psyche, from the point of view of modern science, performs the function of an intermediary between the subjective and the objective, and also realizes a person's ideas about the external and internal, bodily and spiritual.

Object of general psychology- these are the laws of the psyche, as a form of human interaction with the outside world. This form, due to its versatility, is subject to research in completely different aspects, which are studied by different branches of psychological science. The object is the development of the psyche, norms and pathologies in it, the types of human activities in life, as well as his attitude to the world around him.

Due to the scale of the subject of general psychology and the ability to single out in its composition many objects for research, at present in psychological science there are general theories of psychology that are guided by various scientific ideals and psychological practice itself, which develops certain psychotechnics for influencing consciousness and controlling it.

2.3 Industry psychology

Industry psychology -separate sections of psychology that arose in the process of solving specific practical and theoretical problems.

Branches of psychology can be divided into:

v development principle

Ø Age

ØComparative

Ø Pedagogical

Ø Special (pathopsychological)

v Attitude towards the individual and society

Ø Social Psychology

Ø Psychology of Personality

v Activities

Ø Psyche of work

Ø Psychic of communication

Ø Sports Psychology

Ø medical psychology

Ø Military psychology

Ø Legal psychology, etc.

Examples of some branches of psychology

Pedagogical psychologystudies the human psyche in the process of his training and education, establishes and uses the laws of the psyche as he acquires knowledge, skills and abilities. This science studies psychological problems, management of the educational process. In addition, the main problems of educational psychology are the study of factors affecting student performance, the features of interaction and communication between the teacher and the student. Pedagogical psychology is divided into the psychology of learning, which explores the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills, and the psychology of education, which studies the patterns of active, purposeful personality formation. psychology observation conversation test

Age-related psychologyis closely related to pedagogy, studies the characteristics of the human psyche at different stages of its development - from the moment of birth to death. It is divided into child psychology, youth psychology, adult psychology, geront psychology, etc. The central problems of developmental psychology are the creation of a methodological basis for monitoring the course, the usefulness of the content and conditions of the links in the mental development of the child, as well as the organization of optimal forms of children's activity and communication, psychological assistance during periods of age crises, in adulthood and old age.

Social Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to the fact of combining them into social groups. Provides psychological patterns of relationships between the individual and the team, determines the psychological compatibility of people in the group; studies such phenomena as leadership, cohesion, the process of making group decisions, the problems of the social development of the personality, its own assessment, stability, suggestibility; the effectiveness of the impact of the media on a person, especially the spread of rumors, fashion, bad habits and rituals.

Psychology of Personality- a branch of psychology that studies the mental properties of a person as a holistic education, as a certain system of mental qualities, has an appropriate structure, internal relationships, is characterized by individuality and is interconnected with the surrounding natural and social environment.

3. Test task

The subject of psychology is:

a) the science of behavior;

b) the science of the soul;

c) scientific study of behavior and mental processes in order to apply the acquired knowledge in practice;

d) the science of consciousness;

e) the science of the general patterns of evolution and functioning of the psyche, mental processes as specific forms of animal and human life.

Choose the correct answer. Justify your choice.

Answer: D, because

Psychology, as a science, is very multifaceted and affects many aspects of study (soul, behavior, consciousness, psyche, etc.). Definition subject of psychologysays that under the subject of general psychology, the pattern of development and functioning of the psyche, as well as the individual characteristics of its manifestation, is assumed. Referring to the quotes of P. V. Dobroselsky: "Psychology is the science of the patterns, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of man and animal"; "Psychology is the science of the laws of functioning and development of the psyche, based on the representation of self-observations of special experiences that are not related to the outside world", it can be assumed that the answer I have chosen is correct.

Conclusion

The science of psychology is multifaceted, it is closely connected and intertwined with many other sciences, it covers various areas of the studied activity.

Psychology studies the human psyche, and character, and heredity, and human activity, relationships in society, a person's attitude towards himself, features of cognition and consciousness, ways of perception and understanding.

In connection with all this variety of subjects of psychology, and its connections with other sciences, essentially fruitless questions arose about whether it is a natural science or a humanitarian one, what should be its methodology - biology or philosophy.

An analysis of the historical development of psychology shows that its uniqueness and value as a science lies precisely in its interdisciplinary nature, in the fact that it is built both as a natural science (objective and experimental) and at the same time as a humanities science. Its problems include questions of moral development, the formation of a worldview, and value orientations of a person. It can be said that psychology borrows the experimental basis, the approach to the material and its processing from natural science, while the approach to interpreting the material obtained, the methodological principles - from philosophy.

psychology observation conversation test

Bibliography

Tutorials:

Ostrovsky E.V. Fundamentals of psychology. - M.: INFRA-M: Vuzovsky textbook, 2012.

Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012.

Psychology. Course of lectures: Textbook / V.G. Krysko- M .: University textbook: SIC INFRA-M, 2013.-251p.

Internet resources:://4brain.ru/psy/obshhaja-psihologija.php

"Psychologos" Encyclopedia of Practical Psychology "

http://www.psychologos.ru/articles/view/voobrazhenie

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1.2. The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Branches of psychological science

1.3. Methodological principles of psychology. Methods of psychology

1.1. How to understand the behavior of another person? Why do people have different abilities? What is the "soul" and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.

A rational approach to cognition of the world is based on the fact that the reality surrounding us exists independently of our consciousness, can be investigated empirically, and the observed phenomena are quite explainable from a scientific point of view.

Modern science studies a person, firstly, as a representative of a biological species; secondly, he is regarded as a member of society; thirdly, the subject activity of a person is studied; fourthly, the patterns of development of a particular person are studied.

Psychology studies this inner world of a person's mental phenomena, whether they are aware or not.

The word "psychology" in translation from ancient Greek literally means "the science of the soul" (psyche - "soul", logos - concept, doctrine). The term "psychology" first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, he belonged to a special science that dealt with the study of the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, i.e., those that each person easily detects in his own mind as a result of self-observation. Later, in the XVII-XIX centuries. the field studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena.

concept "psychology" has both scientific and worldly meaning. In the first case, it is used to designate the relevant scientific discipline, in the second - to describe the behavior or mental characteristics of individuals and groups of people. Therefore, to one degree or another, each person becomes acquainted with "psychology" long before its systematic study.

Psychology - the science of the laws of the emergence, functioning and development of the psyche. The psyche cannot be reduced simply to the nervous system. Mental properties are the result of the neurophysiological activity of the brain, however, they contain the characteristics of external objects, and not internal physiological processes, with the help of which the mental arises. Transformations of signals taking place in the brain are perceived by a person as events taking place outside him, in external space and the world. The brain secretes the psyche, thought, just as the liver secretes bile. The disadvantage of this theory is that they identify the psyche with nervous processes and do not see any qualitative differences between them.

Hence,objects domestic psychology is currently advocated by the system of mental phenomena of living beings (humans and animals), as well as the psychology of large (public, ethnic, religious, etc.) and small (corporate, industrial, etc.) groups of people. In turn, hersubject are the patterns of formation, functioning and development of these mental and psychological (socio-psychological) phenomena.

The objects and subject of psychology determine the list of scientific tasks solved within its framework.

In this way,psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to construct a classification of mental phenomena. Mental phenomena (of course, at a different level of organization) exist in animals as well. Therefore, psychology, studying a person, is also interested in the psyche of animals: how it arises and changes in the process of evolution of the animal world, what are the reasons for the difference between the human psyche and the psyche of other living beings.

In order to engage in any activity, communicate with other people, in order to navigate the world around, a person first of all needs to know it. Psychology studies what properties of reality a person learns through mental processes - sensations, perception, thinking, imagination, etc. Psychology also considers the psychological characteristics of various types of activity and communication and their influence on the psyche.

Although mental phenomena are subject to general laws, for each person they are individual. Therefore, psychology studies the individual psychological characteristics of people, their personalities, motives of behavior, temperament and character. We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the personality.

W The tasks of psychology basically boil down to the following:

Learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;

Learn to manage them;

Use the acquired knowledge in order to increase the efficiency of those branches of practice at the intersection with which already established sciences and branches lie.

The system of mental phenomena studied by modern psychology.

Mental phenomena are the totality of all phenomena and processes that reflect the main content of the human psyche and are studied by psychology as a science.

1 TO cognitive mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. They are divided into: cognitive, emotional, volitional.

2. Under mental properties Personality is usually understood as the most significant personality traits that provide a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include orientation, temperament, abilities and character.

3. Mental states are a certain level of efficiency and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic at a particular point in time (rise, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency, etc.)

The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a particular person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the vital activity of groups and collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology.

All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, the mental phenomena of groups and collectives are more clearly divided into internal and external.

Collective mental processes that act as the primary factor in regulating the existence of a team or group include communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relationships, the formation of group norms, intergroup relationships, etc. The mental states of a group include conflict, cohesion, psychological climate, openness or closeness of the group , panic, etc. Among the most significant mental properties of the group include organization, leadership style, efficiency.

1.2. So, for a long time, being one of the sections philosophy, psychology inevitably took from this science fundamentally important theoretical provisions that determine the approach to solving problems. Thus, philosophy is the methodological basis of psychology.

There is an obvious connection between psychology and natural sciences- biology, physiology, chemistry, physics, etc., with the help of which one can study the physiological and biological processes of the brain that underlie the psyche.

Psychology is closer to humanities(sociology, history, linguistics, art history, etc.) the study of the interaction of the individual and his immediate environment; interest in the peculiarities of the mental, spiritual make-up of a person in various historical eras; the role of language in the cultural and mental development of a person, the problem of creativity.

The link between psychology and pedagogy. It is possible to effectively teach and educate only on the basis of knowledge of the laws by which the human psyche develops.

The links between psychology and medicine. These sciences find common points of contact in the study of the problem of mental disorders, the psychological substantiation of the features of the interaction between the doctor and the patient, the diagnosis and treatment of a number of diseases.

The relationship between psychology and technical sciences manifests itself, on the one hand, in identifying the optimal psychological conditions for the interaction of man and machine, on the other hand, in the development of technical means, instruments for studying the manifestations of the psyche.

Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third. This is explained by the fact that the focus of her attention is always a person, who is also studied by the sciences named above, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its integral part - the theory of knowledge (epistemology) solves the question of the attitude of the psyche to the surrounding world and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary. Psychology, on the other hand, explains the role that the psyche plays in human activity and its development.

According to the classification of sciences of academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.

Rice. one. Classification by A. Kedrov

The structure of modern psychology includes a wide range of branches of psychological science.

So, the features of the psyche of animals are studied by zoopsychology. The human psyche is studied by other branches of psychology: child psychology studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activities, the entire personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development. Social psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationships with people, with a group, the psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, the press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people). Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of personality development in the process of education and upbringing. There are a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity: labor psychology considers the psychological characteristics of a person's labor activity, the patterns of development of labor skills. Engineering psychology studies the regularities of the processes of interaction between a person and modern technology in order to use them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems, new types of technology. Aviation, space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activity of a pilot, astronaut. Medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor's activity and the behavior of the patient, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy. Pathopsychology studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the disintegration of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology. Legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in a criminal process (psychology of testimonies, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of a criminal's personality. Military psychology studies human behavior in combat conditions.

1.3. Generally methodology determines the principles and methods by which a person is guided in his activities.

Domestic psychology distinguishes the following as methodological principles of materialistic psychology:

1. Principle determinism which is used to analyze the nature and essence of mental phenomena when considering the latter in conjunction with the phenomena of the external world. According to this principle, the psyche is determined by the way of life and changes with changes in external conditions, while being a determinant of human behavior and activity.

2. Principle unity of consciousness and activity, asserting that consciousness and activity are inseparable unity, which is expressed in the fact that consciousness and, in general, all mental properties of a person are not only manifested, but also formed in activity. This principle makes it possible, in the study of activity, to identify those psychological patterns that ensure the success of achieving its goal.

3.Principle development means that the manifestations of the psyche can be correctly understood if they are considered in continuous development as a process and result of activity.

Methodological principles are embodied in special empirical methods of psychology, with the help of which essential facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche are revealed.

TO basic methods psychological research include observation and experiment.

Observation as a method of psychology is to fix the manifestations of mental phenomena in behavior based on their direct perception.

Scientific observation is undertaken with a strictly defined goal, predetermined situations and behaviors that should become the object of study, as well as a developed system for fixing and recording results. It is important that several people participate in the observation, and the final assessment should be the average of the observations. These measures are taken to reduce the influence of the characteristics of the observer on the process of perception.

There are the following types of observation:

non-standardized, when the researcher uses the general observation plan;

standardized in which the registration of facts is based on detailed observation schemes, predetermined patterns of behavior.

Depending on the position of the observer, an observation is distinguished:

- included, when the researcher is a member of the group he is observing;

- simple, when the features of behavior are fixed from the outside. This is a passive method of obtaining psychological facts, since the researcher cannot influence the course of events or repeat them. Using this method, it is difficult to establish the exact cause of an act, action, since only their external manifestations are recorded. At the same time, the passivity of the observer makes it possible to study behavior in natural conditions without distorting the natural course of events as a result of interference, as can happen in an experiment.

Experiment differs from observation primarily in that it involves a purposeful organization of the research situation by the psychologist; this makes it possible to relatively strictly control the conditions of its conduct, not only to describe the psychological facts, but also to explain the reasons for their occurrence.

This advantage of the experiment often turns into a disadvantage: it is difficult to organize an experimental study so that the subject does not know about it. A person's knowledge that he is the subject of study, as a rule, causes the subject's stiffness, anxiety, etc., especially if the study is carried out in special conditions, for example, in an equipped laboratory (laboratory experiment).

Therefore, a natural experiment is often used, in which the researcher actively influences the situation, but in forms that do not violate its naturalness, for example, in the process of human labor activity.

In stating An experiment checks the existence of a connection between certain facts or phenomena. Formative the experiment involves the active, purposeful influence of the experimenter on the subject in order to form his psyche.

In addition to the main ones in psychology, auxiliary methods are distinguished:

survey- collection of primary verbal information using a pre-compiled set of questions in the process of direct (interview) or indirect (questionnaire) contact between the researcher and the subject;

tests- a system of standardized tasks that measure the level of development of a certain characteristic of a person - intelligence, creative abilities, etc.;

study of products of activity- quantitative and qualitative analysis of various documentary sources (diaries, videos, newspapers, magazines, etc.).

Depending on the objectives of a particular study, the methods of psychology are embodied in private methods (for example, the method of observation is implemented in various ways in the course of studying the work collective and the study group).

The degree of reliability of the results of applying the technique largely depends on the conditions in which the study is organized (time of day, the presence or absence of extraneous noise, the behavior of the researcher, the state of health of the subject, etc.).

Psychology- the science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all the variety of forms.

General psychology- a fundamental discipline that studies the general patterns of cognitive processes and states and the general mental properties of the individual.

The path of development of psychological science was more difficult than the development of other sciences, such as physics or chemistry. It is not difficult to understand the reasons for this difference. After all, as is well known, the objects of physics, chemistry, and other natural sciences are somehow visible, tangible, material. Psychology, on the other hand, deals with substance, which, although it constantly reveals itself, nevertheless acts as a special reality of the highest level and differs from material reality by its invisibility, intangibility, immateriality.

It is precisely this difference, which gives rise to the difficulties of fixing psychological phenomena, and from the very beginning made it difficult for the development of psychological knowledge, its transformation into an independent science, since its object itself for a long time seemed elusive, mysterious.

The history of psychological knowledge has more than 2000 years, during which it has developed mainly within the framework of philosophy and natural science.

The beginning of the transformation of psychology into an independent science is associated with the name of a German scientist Christian Wolf(1679-1754), who published the books Rational Psychology (1732), and Experimental Psychology (1734), in which he used the term "psychology".

However, only from the beginning of the XX century. psychology finally emerged as an independent science. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. the importance of psychology has increased significantly in connection with its ever greater involvement in various types of practical activity. There were such branches of psychology as pedagogical, legal, military, managerial, sports psychology, etc. At the same time, the uniqueness of the object of psychological science gave rise to a large number of scientific schools and theories in its composition, complementing each other and often contradicting each other.

The meaning of the word "psychology" itself becomes clear if we consider that it consists of two Greek terms: « psyche» - soul, derived from the name of the Greek goddess Psyche, and « logos» - word, concept, doctrine, science.

From the moment of its appearance, psychology began to stand out among other sciences, since it turned out to be the only one among them that is named after the goddess.

Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology. According to one of the myths, the god of love Eros fell in love with a simple peasant woman Psyche. distinguished, however, by divine beauty. But the mother of Eros, the goddess Aphrodite, was very unhappy with the fact that her son. celestial, wanted to join his fate with a mere mortal. Aphrodite began to make efforts to separate the lovers. She made Psyche go through many trials. But Psyche's desire to connect her fate with Eros turned out to be so great that it made a strong impression on the gods of Olympus and they decided to help Psyche overcome all the trials that fell to her lot and fulfill her requirements of Aphrodite. Meanwhile, Eros managed to convince the supreme God - Zeus to turn Psyche into a goddess, to make her as immortal as the gods. So lovers manage to unite forever.

In fact, it is this deep thought about the integrity of the universe, which includes two main principles - material and spiritual. contained in an ancient myth, has become the basis for the ideas of modern materialistic philosophy and psychology about the essence of the human psyche, as such a property of highly organized matter, which embodies the highest stage of the universal evolution of nature.

It is this idea that is expressed in the most common definition of psychological science today:

Psychology is a science whose object is the laws of the psyche as a special, higher form of human and animal life.

herself psyche today is understood not as something mysterious and inexplicable, but as the highest form of the relationship of living beings with the objective world, which has arisen as a result of a long process of self-organization of nature, expressed in their ability to realize their impulses on the basis of information about this world.

At the level of a person, expressing the highest stage of the organization process, the orderliness of being, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that the biological nature of a person is transformed by sociocultural factors, due to which an extensive internal plan of life activity arises - consciousness, and a person becomes a personality.

However, even today it should be borne in mind that for many centuries the psyche was designated by the term “soul”, which was presented as an incorporeal entity, the history and fate of which, according to various religious beliefs that have survived to this day, depend not so much on processes of self-organization of natural being, not so much from a living body, how much from extraterrestrial, supernatural beginnings, from otherworldly forces inaccessible to our understanding. It is this idea of ​​the essence of the mental that underlies all modern world religions, including Christianity, and is also supported by some areas of philosophy and modern psychological science.

However, from the point of view of other psychological teachings, the psyche is the highest product of the processes of self-organization of nature and acts as an intermediary between the subjective, human and objective, external world, providing a powerful rise in the effectiveness of human activity to transform the natural and social environment.

But one way or another, the basis of modern psychology is formed by historically established ideas about the correspondence of the mental and material worlds, the coexistence of internal and external, mental and bodily, subjective and objective being.

Of course, before coming to such an idea of ​​the essence of the mental, knowledge about it had to go through a long path of development, which includes a number of stages. Acquaintance with the content of these stages helps to understand psychic reality more deeply and, on this basis, to make a conscious choice between the various interpretations that still exist today.

The process of formation of psychological knowledge was long and difficult. These difficulties were not accidental. They are associated with the specifics of the mental, which generated in the past and generates today many problems in the development of psychological science, in particular, explains the preservation up to the present time. polytheoretical character this area of ​​knowledge.

Difficulties in the development of psychology are associated with the following features of the mental sphere:

special location, localization object of psychological science. The physical media of this object is located not outside, but within us. Moreover, the physical carriers of mental functions are “hidden” inside us especially reliably: in the skull, in other most durable bone structures of our skeleton.

This is a particularly reliable protection, created by nature to protect the psyche. at the same time, it greatly complicates the study of the secrets of this sphere.

The specificity of the mental world also lies in the fact that, being closely connected with the material, physical world, with the process of self-organization common to the entire universe, at the same time, it is opposite to it in a number of its properties. As already noted, the psyche is distinguished by such properties as incorporeality, intangibility, invisibility. Of course, mental properties sometimes come out, they are manifested in the words, gestures and actions of people and thus partly materialize.

However, between these visible, material manifestations and the psychic phenomena themselves there always remains a distance, sometimes of a huge size. No wonder some experts on the human psyche argue that language is given to us in order to hide our thoughts.

From these features of the sphere of the mental follows another one that researchers constantly encountered - impossibility of precise fixation, physical or chemical registration of mental processes occurring in the nervous system, especially in the brain, the impossibility of objectively determining the thoughts and feelings that arise within us. That is why repeated attempts to create the so-called "lie detector" or chronograph turned out to be unsuccessful, because they were invariably found. that in the process of their experimental use, these devices fix only physiological processes (changes in pulse, body temperature, pressure, etc.), with which mental phenomena are associated, but not these psychic phenomena themselves.

And finally, another difficulty in the cognition of mental reality arises in connection with the impossibility of using the whole complex of our cognitive abilities for its study, since psychic phenomena cannot be seen, smelled, or touched: they can only be perceived indirectly, speculatively, with the help of our ability for abstract thinking, since only this unique ability of ours makes it possible see the invisible.

All these features of psychic reality made the task of studying it especially difficult and led to the fact that the path of development of psychology turned out to be very long and contradictory. This path included a number of stages, each of which generated its own special form of psychological knowledge.

The study of the history of psychology, of course, cannot be reduced to a simple enumeration of particular psychological problems, ideas, and ideas. In order to understand them. it is necessary to understand their internal connection, the single logic of the formation of psychology as a science.

It is especially important to understand that psychology as the doctrine of the human soul is always conditioned anthropology, the doctrine of man in his wholeness. Studies, hypotheses, conclusions of psychology, no matter how abstract and private they may seem, imply a certain understanding human essence, are guided by one or another of his image.

In turn, doctrine of man fits into general picture of the world, formed on the basis of the synthesis of knowledge, worldview attitudes of a particular historical era. Therefore, the history of the formation and development of psychological knowledge is, although a complex, contradictory, but quite logical process associated with a change in the understanding of the essence of a person and the formation on this basis of new explanations of his psyche.

In this process, three main historical stages are usually distinguished, which correspond to three forms of psychological knowledge:

• , or worldly, psychology;

Structure of psychological science

The historical process of development of each science is associated with its increasingly significant differentiation, which is based on the process of expanding the object of this science. As a result, modern sciences, especially fundamental ones, which include psychology. constitute a complex multi-branch system. As the structure of science becomes more complex, it becomes necessary to classify its constituent branches of science. The classification of branch sciences is understood as their systematic division, the ordering of scientific knowledge by decomposing a particular science as a generic concept into its constituent generic concepts.

Psychology at the present level of development is a very branched system of scientific disciplines.

They develop common problems and study the general laws of the psyche that manifest themselves in people, regardless of what activity they are engaged in. Due to the universality of knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology, they are united by the term "general psychology".

It studies such mental processes as sensations, perceptions, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. V personality psychology the mental structure of the personality and the mental properties of the personality that determine the deeds and actions of a person are studied.

In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines, associated with various areas of human life and activity.

Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of activity, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, the psychology of trade and the psychology of scientific creativity, the psychology of sports, etc.

social Psychology.

The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely connected with both general psychology and special branches of psychology.

genetic, differential and developmental psychology.

For a mentally competent organization of education, it is necessary to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as a family, student and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of social psychology.

Psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in the behavior and psyche of a person and is extremely necessary in pedagogical work with children who are lagging behind in mental development, or pedagogically neglected children.

Combines all information related to education and upbringing. The subject of pedagogical psychology is the psychological patterns of training and education of a person. The sections of pedagogical psychology are: the psychology of learning (the psychological foundations of didactics, private methods, the formation of mental actions); psychology of education (psychological foundations of education, psychological foundations of corrective labor pedagogy); psychology of teaching and educational work with difficult children: the psychology of the teacher).

Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, which results in the docking of psychology with other sciences, such as, for example, through educational psychology with pedagogy.

Subject of Psychological Science

The very name of psychology means that psychology is the science of the soul. The study, explanation of the soul was the first stage in the formation. So, for the first time, psychology was defined as the science of the soul. But it turned out to be quite difficult to study the soul by scientific methods. In the course of historical development, focusing on natural scientific methods of research and the general scientific ideal of objectivity, psychologists abandoned the concept of the soul and began to develop programs for building psychology as a single scientific discipline based on a materialistic worldview. On this path, psychology has achieved significant success in studying the phenomena of the human psyche: the main components of the psyche were identified, the patterns of the formation of sensation and perception were studied, the types of memory, types and features of thinking were identified, the psychological problems of specific types of human activity were studied, etc.

However, as many psychologists state, the path of abandoning the concept of the soul and replacing it with the concept of the psyche ultimately turned out to be a dead end for psychology.

Throughout the 20th century Both Western and Soviet psychology proceeded from the world of existence, and spiritual life was considered as a product of "matter organized in a special way" - the brain and social interactions. The result of such a campaign was, as noted by B.S. Brother, not only a dead, soulless, soul-giving person as an object of research, but also a dead, soulless psychology.

No matter how psychology claims to be scientific objectivity, nevertheless, at the basis of any significant psychological concept of the 20th century, whether it be behaviorism or Marxist psychology, psychoanalysis or humanistic psychology, the initial image appears to be a person deprived of an immortal soul, subject to instincts, wandering in search of pleasure , comforts, activities, self-realization, self-aggrandizement, etc.

In the course of attempts to build psychology as an independent scientific discipline on the basis of a materialistic worldview, loss of unity psychological science itself. Psychology in the XX century. is a conglomerate of facts, schools, trends and studies, most of all almost completely unrelated to each other. At one time, hopes were pinned on general psychology, which was called upon to play a leading role in relation to specific psychological research, but these hopes were not justified.

Currently, within the framework of psychological science, there are general psychological theories, based on different scientific ideals, and psychological practice, based on certain psychological theories or on a number of them and developing special psycho-techniques for influencing consciousness and controlling it.

The presence of disparate psychological theories has led to the subject matter of psychology. For a behaviorist, the subject of study is behavior; for a supporter of the theory of activity, mentally controlled activity; for a Christian psychologist, living knowledge about the genesis of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them; for a psychoanalyst, the unconscious, etc.

The question naturally arises: is it possible to speak of psychology as a single science with a common subject of study, or should we recognize the existence of many psychologies?

Some scientists believe that psychology is a single science, which, like any other science, has its own special subject. Psychology as a science deals with the study of the factors of mental life, as well as the disclosure of the laws that govern mental phenomena. And no matter how complex ways psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, mastering its subject, no matter how knowledge about it changes and enriches, no matter what terms it denotes, it is possible to single out the signs that characterize the subject of psychology itself, which distinguishes it from other sciences. .

Psychology is a science that studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche.

Other scientists are inclined to think that psychology is science and practice in unity, and science and practice in psychology are understood differently. But this means that there are many psychologies: no less than real experiments in the construction of a psychological science-practice.

The restoration of a single subject of psychology and the synthesis of psychological knowledge is possible only by returning psychology to recognition of reality and the dominant role of the soul. And although the soul will remain predominantly outside the framework of psychological research, its postulation, its reverent recognition, the constant need to correlate with the very fact and goals of its existence will inevitably change, transform the forms and essence of psychological research.

Many open-minded psychologists, both in the West and in Russia, have recognized the deep gulf that separates modern scientific psychology from the great religious systems. The wealth of deep knowledge about the human soul and consciousness accumulated in these systems over centuries and even millennia has not received adequate recognition and has not been studied until recently.

In recent years, there has been a convergence of spiritual-experimental and scientific-theoretical ways of knowing the world.

More and more, there is a desire to go beyond the understanding of psychology as a science about the psyche - a property of the brain. Many modern psychologists consider human psychology as a psychological anthropology and talk about spirituality as the deepest essence of a person. The concepts of soul and spirituality from the standpoint of today are no longer interpreted as purely figurative expressions. Spirituality includes the meaning of life, conscience, higher moral values ​​and feelings, higher interests, ideas, beliefs. And although spirituality has no direct physical correlates, except for energy, psychologists believe that spirituality can be studied within the framework of psychology.

By the end of the XX century. the need to build a unified picture of the world is realized, in which both the results of scientific knowledge of nature and man, and the fruits of thousands of years of spiritual experience would be synthesized. The leader in this process, as has always been the case in the history of scientific knowledge, is physicists. Following physics in scientific psychology, the realization of the need to restructure the worldview and access to a multidimensional understanding of man also began to come.

Taking into account all of the above, psychologists come to understand psychology as a science about a person, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all the variety of forms.

The structure of psychology as a science

Psychology at the present level of development is a very branched system of scientific disciplines, divided into fundamental and applied.

Fundamental Branches of Psychology develop common problems and study the general laws of the psyche that manifest themselves in people, regardless of what activity they are engaged in. Due to the universality of knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology, they are united by the term "general psychology".

General psychology studies the individual, highlighting in him mental cognitive processes and personality. Psychology of cognitive processes studies such mental processes as sensations, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. V personality psychology the psychological structure of the personality and the mental properties of the personality, which determine the deeds and actions of a person, are studied.

In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines that are at different stages of formation, associated with various areas of human life and activity.

Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of activity, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, trade psychology, the psychology of scientific creativity, the psychology of sports, etc.

The psychological aspects of development are studied by developmental psychology and the psychology of abnormal development.

Psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society explores social Psychology.

The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely connected with both general psychology and special branches of psychology.

The scientific basis for understanding the laws of a child's mental development are genetic, differential and age-related psychology. Genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior of the child. Differential psychology reveals individual differences between people and explains the process of their formation. In developmental psychology, the stages of the mental development of the individual are studied.

For a mentally competent organization of education, you need to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as families, student and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of the social psyche.

The psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in the behavior and psyche of a person and is extremely necessary in pedagogical work with children who are lagging behind in mental development.

Educational psychology combines all the information related to training and education. The subject of pedagogical psychology is the psychological patterns of training and education of a person. Sections of educational psychology are:

• psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods, formation of mental actions);
• psychology of education (psychological foundations of education, psychological foundations of corrective labor pedagogy);
• psychology of educational work with difficult children;
• teacher psychology.

Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, which results in the docking of psychology with other sciences, for example, through educational psychology with pedagogy.

Dictionary

Transpersonal psychology- a trend in psychology of the 20th century, founded by the American psychologist S. Grof and considering a person as a cosmic and spiritual being, inextricably linked with all of humanity and the Universe, and his consciousness as part of the global information network.

Soviet psychology- a period in the development of domestic psychology, when Marxist-Leninist philosophy served as the ideological basis of psychological research.

Spiritually Oriented Psychology- a direction in modern domestic psychology, based on traditional spiritual values ​​and recognizing the reality of spiritual life.