Message about the Greek-Byzantine and Latin languages. Greek language
belongs to Indo-European. a family of languages, which developed on the territory of the South-East. Europe (or, according to other t. sp., M. Asia) as a result of ethnic processes approx. VI-V-th millennium BC It occupies a special place among the Indo-European. languages, because written history G. i. dates back more than 3.5 thousand years (from the 15th-14th centuries BC) and is a unique phenomenon that allows us to trace the continuous development of its linguistic and cultural traditions. This circumstance contributed to the preservation of the stability of G. Ya., to-ry influenced the main Europeans. tongues, especially in Slavic, and also in the languages of Christ. East. Greek is the foundational language of Christ. texts.
History of G. I.
conditionally divided into 3 main periods: proto-Greek. language, ancient Greek the language of ancient Greece, the language of the Middle Ages. Byzantium, sometimes called Middle Greek, and Modern Greek. modern language Greece.
Within this periodization, the following more fractional division can be proposed: 1) proto-Greek. language III - ser. II millennium BC; 2) ancient Greek. language: Mycenaean Greece (Mycenaean Business Koine) - XV-XII centuries. BC, prepolis period (reconstruction) - XI-IX centuries. BC, ancient polis Greece (polydialect state) - VIII - con. 4th century BC, "Alexandrian" Koine (the fall of ancient dialects) - III-I centuries. BC; 3) G. I. Hellenistic-Roman. period (opposition of the atticizing lit. language and polyvariant colloquial and everyday speech) - I-IV centuries. according to R. H.; 4) medieval. G. I.; 5) the language of Byzantium V - ser. XV century; 6) the language of the era Ottoman yoke- con. XV - beginning. XVIII century; 7) modern Greek. language since the 18th century.
From a linguistic point of view, taking into account the specifics of the development and relationships of 2 functional forms of the language (lit. and colloquial-everyday), which played an important role in the development of G. Ya., the periodization of its history is based on the allocation of 3 language complexes: ancient Greek. language (in oral speech until the 4th-3rd centuries BC), containing territorial, as well as literary processed dialects; the Hellenistic koine, which developed under Alexander the Great and his successors, and already in the 1st millennium A.D. developed into modern Greek; actually modern Greek. language in demotic form after the tenth century. according to R. Kh. As such, Byzantine, or Middle Greek, a language that differed in grammatical structure from the named language complexes did not exist.
Separation of G. I. in ancient, middle and modern Greek. has primarily historical and political, and not historical and linguistic significance (Beletsky A. A. Problems of the Greek language of the Byzantine era // Antique culture and modern science. M., 1985. P. 189-193). From the standpoint of linguistic history proper, a special state of linguistics, which had no analogue in other languages, is its development into Byzantium. an era when, in addition to the preserved and newly created texts in ancient Greek. language in it were closely intertwined and directly adjacent in one text features of ancient Greek. period (from Homeric forms and vocabulary to variants of G. I. of the first centuries according to R. Kh.) and new features, which began to form even before R. Kh. and formed into a system already in the New Greek. language.
Occurrence of G. I.
Department of Greek (Hellenic) proto-dialects from the rest of the Indo-Europeans. refers to approximately the 3rd millennium BC. At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC, proto-Greek. tribes appeared on the Balkan Peninsula, apparently spreading in 2 directions. From the south, the Balkan Peninsula and nearby islands, where non-Indo-Europeans have long lived. and Indo-European tribes inhabited by the Achaeans, later from the north came tribes united under the name "Dorian". A highly developed civilization on the island of Crete was at the heart of non-Indo-European, it influenced the culture of the Achaeans, who borrowed their syllabic writing from the Cretans (the result of which was “letter A”, still not deciphered, and later, deciphered, "letter B"), political organization, the beginnings of crafts and art.
Mycenaean or Crete-Mycenaean is the culture of the most developed in the XIII-XI centuries. BC Achaean state-va. The Cretan-Mycenaean texts on lined clay tablets (“linear” writing) give reason to consider this time as the beginning of the history of Greece.
The formation of Greek dialects
In con. II millennium BC there was a migration of tribes living in Europe and in the north of the Balkans. Part of the tribes that inhabited the north of the Balkans rushed to the south. Among them were the Dorians, who were at a lower level of cultural development than the Achaeans. As a result of the Dorian invasion and, possibly, some natural disasters, the Achaean culture almost completely died. In the XII-IX centuries. BC in the east of the Greek. world developed Ionian dialects of the Asia Minor coast, parts of the islands of the Aegean archipelago and Attica. The dialect of Attica soon became independent. Central and partly east. the tribes were carriers of Aeolian dialects (the island of Lesbos, the adjacent coast of M. Asia, as well as Thessaly, Boeotia in the Balkans). A separate group was made up of the Dorian dialects of the Peloponnese and dialects of the North-West close to them. parts of Hellas. All these dialects played a big role in the formation of the Greek language. literature.
Archaic and classical periods
In the 8th century BC in the most developed central part of the Asia Minor coast, populated mainly by Ionians, the formation of the foundations of lit. language, evolved Greek. non-folklore epic. Its main monuments are the epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the authorship of which has been attributed to Homer since antiquity. These works are borderline between folklore and author's literature, so the VIII century. BC is considered the time of the beginning of the Greek. liters. Rapid economic and cultural development created a need for writing, and it was borrowed from the Semites. peoples. In the VII-VI centuries. BC in connection with the development of the Greek. classical literature developed a genre-dialect differentiation of Greek. literature.
The rise of Athens as a result of Greco-Persian. wars (500-449 BC) led to an increase in the prestige of the Attic dialect. This was also facilitated by the flourishing of verbal creativity in Athens, the emergence of philosophical schools, the rise of oratory. In the V-IV centuries. BC language lit. works reached a high degree of stylistic processing, with all the importance of the Attic dialect for the language of literature, the Ionian lit. forms, which gradually led to the creation of the Attic-Ionic common variant of the language - Koine (from the Greek κοινὴ διάλεκτος - mutual language) in colloquial and lit. forms.
Hellenistic and Roman periods
From con. 4th century BC, in the Hellenistic era (see Ancient Greece), on the state of G. I. and his further development largely influenced by the change in the relationship between written and oral speech. If polis life required the development of oral speech, then political and cultural contacts in the vast territory of the empire of Alexander the Great and his successors could not be carried out without expanding the scope of the written language, this process entailed a restructuring of education and a change in lit. genres. Since that time, oral speech and written lit. language developed in opposite directions. Numerous local variants appeared in oral speech, forms of dialects were mixed and a certain average colloquial form was created, understandable throughout the Greek space. peace. This version of the Greek language in Greek Science received the name "Alexandrian (th) Koine", in Russian - "Koine". In written lit. prose language, there was a conscious conservation of the classical Attic norm of the 5th-4th centuries. BC and the Ionian-Attic variant lit. con language. IV-III century. BC, which influenced the further history of G. I.
In the II century. BC Greek. states came under the rule of Rome. Rome. culture developed under a strong Greek. influence, however, the Greeks were also influenced by lat. language, which became state. the language of Hellas (since that time part of the Roman Empire). 1st-4th centuries according to R. Kh., they define it as a Roman, or Hellenistic-Roman, period in the development of Greek. culture. Reaction to the Latinization of Greek. policies was the "revival" of the Greek. influence in the second century. according to R. Kh., which was reflected primarily in the fate of the language: the norm of lit. language again became the language of Attic prose of the 5th-4th centuries. BC This is an archaic trend in the history of G. I. called "atticism". The Attikists prevented the penetration into Lit. the language of new vocabulary, non-classical grammatical forms, restored forms that had gone out of use - all this contributed a lot to the fact that oral speech and written lit. the language further diverged in the forms of use. This situation is typical for the entire history of G. I. up to modern states.
Byzantine period
The political history of Byzantium begins conditionally from 330 - the foundation new capital Roman (Romaic) Empire - K-fields (see Byzantine Empire). The specificity of the linguistic situation in Byzantium was the preservation in writing first exclusively, and then to a lesser extent norms lit. language of the Attic period, or Hellenistic lit. koine. Along with this form, lit. language, the spoken language continued to develop (the basis of the New Greek language), which hardly conquered higher spheres of linguistic communication. The growing difference between written and oral language is characteristic of almost the entire thousand-year period of Byzantium's existence.
After the conquest of the Greek land in the 15th century. Ottoman authorities only minimally supported the Greek. culture necessary for cultural and political ties with Europe. At this time, for the Greek-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire, ancient culture and ancient Greek. language became the embodiment of the national spirit, their study and propaganda continued to be the basis of education. A similar archaizing tendency prevailed after the liberation of the Greeks from the tour. the yoke in 1821 and continued for more than a century.
Dialect division of the ancient Greek language and the language of literature
Dialects of the classical period
G. i. archaic and classical time (VIII-IV centuries BC) was polydialect. In parallel with the development of many of territorial dialects, more generalized, albeit local forms of the language, the Koine dialects, also developed. They had at least 2 variants: colloquial and everyday and to some extent stylistically processed, used in the business language (its features were reflected in the inscriptions) and in the lit. works, where a certain tradition was gradually created: a certain lit. the genre must correspond to a certain variant of the dialect lit. koine.
By the classical period (V-IV centuries BC) in various areas of the multi-polised and multi-structural Hellenic world, the Dorian koine was formed in the Peloponnese and Vel. Greece, Aeolian Koine in Wed. Greece, the Ionian koine in Asia Minor regions. main role at that time the Attic koine was playing. The Koine dialects differed mainly in phonetic features. There were not many grammatical differences (in the form of endings).
Dorian koine
Northwest dialects Balkans, most of the Peloponnese and Vel. Greece for many phonetic and grammatical features are combined into one group, usually called Dorian. These dialects retained the archaic features of G. Ya., therefore it is precisely the Dorian forms of Greek. words are most often used when comparing Indo-European. languages. About Dorian Lit. Koine can be judged by the official language. inscriptions and works of poets, for example. Alkman from Sparta (7th century BC). Examples of the use of the Dorian dialect in Christ. literature is not numerous (Sinesius of Cyrene, 5th century).
Aeolian koine
The group of Aeolian dialects, with a broad interpretation of this term, includes 3 sowing. dialect (Thessalian, Boeotian and Asia Minor, or Lesbos) and 2 southern (Arcadian in the Peloponnese and Cypriot). But the latter are usually distinguished into the Arcado-Cypriot group. Lit. the form of the Aeolian dialects is known from the inscriptions and works of the Lesbos poets Alcaeus and Sappho. In Christ. literature, this dialect is not represented.
Ionian Koine
Dialects of this dialect were common on the coast of M. Asia and on the islands (Chios, Samos, Paros, Euboea, etc.), in the policies of the South. Italy and the Black Sea. The Attic dialect, which separated from it early, also belongs to the Ionian dialects. Stylistically processed forms of Ionian dialects are known from epic and lyric works (poems by Mimnermus), inscriptions and Herodotus' History. Echoes of the Ionian dialect are found mainly in the works of the Byzantines. historians as a result of their imitation of Herodotus.
Attic dialect and Atticism
The Attic dialect is an early isolated dialect of the Ionian group. Due to the leading position of Athens, the main city of Attica, in the political and cultural history of Hellas, lit. a variant of the Attic dialect in the classical period (V-IV centuries BC) played the role of common Greek. language (Koine) in higher spheres communications (religion, art, science, court, army). Already from the III century. BC in Alexandria, which became the center of Hellenistic culture, the works of Attic authors of the classical period began to be considered canonical, vocabulary and grammar of the 5th-4th centuries. BC were recommended as norms lit. language. This direction was called "atticism". Before the beginning 20th century it was proclaimed the basis of the Greek. language culture, which contributed to the stability of Lit. G. i.
In the history of the Attic dialect, 3 periods are conditionally distinguished: Old Attic (VI - early V century BC), classical (V-IV centuries BC), Neo-Attic (from the end of the IV century BC). X.). The Neo-Attic dialect reflected the features general development G. Ya.: an active process of leveling declension and conjugation according to the principle of analogy, etc. But the main features of the Neo-Attic dialect are its convergence with Ionian dialects (in some cases, the recomposition of archaic or common Greek forms) and the spread of Ionian vocabulary and word-formation models. These processes were associated with the formation of a common variant of the language - the Hellenistic (Alexandrian) Koine. It is to this dialect that G. I. to ser. 3rd century according to R. Kh. in Alexandria were translated from Hebrew. the language of the OT book (see Art. Septuagint), which laid the foundation first for the Hellenistic-Jewish, and then for the early Christ. liters.
Greek Koine of the Hellenistic period (3rd century BC - 4th century AD). Major language changes
Phonetics
In the system of vocalism, the differences in vowel length and brevity gradually disappeared, in the II-III centuries. according to R. Kh., this led to a change in the type of stress - musical to dynamic; the complex system of diphthongs began to be simplified since the 5th century. BC, when the diphthong ου was monophthongized; curtailment (involution) gr. vocalism led to the fact that the vowels ι and η, and in some regions also υ, coincided in pronunciation [i] (Itacism, or Jotacism). By the 1st century BC completely disappeared from the letter iota in diphthongs with the 1st long vowel. It was later introduced by the Attikists as an iota attributed, and then by the Byzantine. grammar - like an iota of signature.
In the system of consonantism, the pronunciation of the double consonant ζ in [z] was simplified and the opposition s / z was gradually formed; aspirated φ, χ, θ turned into voiceless fricatives; voiced β, γ, δ - into voiced fricatives; the phonetic features of the Attic dialect were leveled, the Ionian forms were established: -γν- > -ν-, -ρρ- > -ρσ-, -ττ- > -σσ-; a new series of stops was formed (nasal or non-nasal allophone); palatalized stops appeared (they were not specifically designated in the letter); in the later period there was an affricate. In the field of syntactic phonetics, the prefix ν at the end of a word has become widespread; elision and krasis were rarely used.
In morphology, in the naming system, the alignment of subspecies in declension to -α occurred, the II Attic declension disappeared, the greatest changes affected the athematic declension. Its anomalies were either replaced by synonyms or changed according to the most common derivational types. There was a contamination of declension III, on the one hand, and I and II, on the other. The vocative has given way to the nominative, and if it was used, then without the interjection ὦ. The dual number disappeared, the dative case was gradually eliminated. As a result of the re-decomposition of the endings in favor of the bases, gradually the Greek. declension by types of stems was transformed into declension by grammatical gender (masculine, feminine and middle declension). The wrong degrees of comparison were aligned according to the type of regular ones, the synthetic type of the superlative degree of adjectives was replaced by the superlative degree formed from the comparative with the addition of the article. Adjectives were divided into 2 types: -ος, -α, -ον and -υς, -(ε)ια, -υ. The numeral "one" began to act as an indefinite article. The reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person began to be used in the 1st and 2nd person.
In the verb system, the ways of expressing both verbal categories and individual forms have changed. At the same time, analytical tendencies were growing for a clearer expression of the complex meaning of the verb form. The tendency to form forms by analogy has intensified; forms such as "I am the seer" appeared to express the opposition of the long and short-lived present in parallel with the long and short past. The endings of I and II aorists, the imperfect and aorist I, and verb forms in -αω and -εω were mixed. Verbs in -οω became verbs in -ωνω. The use of the descriptive imperative for the 1st and 3rd person began; the ending of the 2nd person of the imperative present was unified. tense and aorist.
In the field of syntax, there was a tendency to express various case meanings with the help of prepositions; absolute (independent) infinitive and participial phrases gradually disappeared; the variability of cases with prepositions was reduced; the process of formation of analytical forms with a preposition intensified, to-rye replaced many others. case.
There was a change of types in the word-formation of Koine. So, in the language of the NT and the papyri there were many new words in -ισκος, -ισκη, appeared a large number of words of women kind on -η. Phrasing became especially intense in Koine, giving rise to many words in the New Testament and later language, their tracing increased the vocabulary of glories. languages. In lit. Koine forms mostly preserved the vocabulary of the classical period.
Koine Septuagint and NT
From the linguistic point of view. feature of G. I. The OT consists in the fact that it is an adaptation to the language of a completely different system and at the same time is an illustration of the lability of G. Ya., reflecting grammatical and lexical Semitisms. The language of the OT is the most accurate expression of the essence of the Greek. koine. Lability and versatility - characteristic and G. i. NZ, which can be defined as a complex phenomenon, representing the difference in time between the creation of parts of the canon and the influence of Greek. dialects and neighboring languages, primarily Aramaic and Hebrew. Although the NZ has a spoken language with its own characteristics and development trends, G. Ya. NT cannot be considered a reflection of common speech. The NT texts are different in style: sermons, stories, parables, epistles, etc., they use many. rhetorical devices inherent in the developed lit. language. The NT language in the history of G. Ya. perceived as an independent form of lit. language like that of Homer.
Koine remained the language of Christ. liters up to ser. 2nd century Since that time, Christ writers mostly switch to variants of the “scholarly” atticising language, however, such works as patericons, soulful stories, some lives of saints, etc., continued to be written in Koine. Based on the Koine OT and NT and G. Ya. forms closer to the classical ones. to IV-V centuries. the language of Christ was formed. worship, to-ry became the basis of the stability of G. I. both in the Middle Ages and in new period history and to-ry used to present. time unchanged. Unlike the Catholic West, where lat. the language of worship was inaccessible to the general population, for the Orthodox. Greek liturgical texts have always remained at least partially intelligible.
Medieval G. i. (IV or VI-XV centuries).
In the structure of the language at that time, all those processes were going on, the beginning of which was laid in the Hellenistic era. Their periodization is difficult to imagine due to the insufficient number of sources consistent in time.
In phonetics, the processes of Itakism continued (almost everywhere η, ι, οι are pronounced as [i]), narrowing of the vowel (cf. κώνωψ and κουνούπι - mosquito), disappearance of vowels as a result of synizes, apheresis, reduction and simplification of diphthongs (θαῦμα and θάμα - miracle ); dissimilation of voiceless consonants (νύξ and νύχτα - night), simplification of consonant groups, instability of the final -ν. In morphology, declensions were unified and reduced: the creation of paradigms with 2 and 3 case endings, the gradual disappearance of the dative case. In the verb system, there was a tendency to “fold” the branched system of forms of classical time: the optative and infinitive disappeared, the use of the conjunctiva decreased, the increment became irregular, the declension of the participles was lost, there were no differences in the system of conjugation of continuous verbs in the imperfect, the verb “to be” acquired clear medial endings, etc.
In the IV-VII centuries. the education system remained focused on ancient culture, including on G. I. ancient era. As in ancient Hellas, the basis of teaching grammar was the study of Homer's poems, since grammar was understood as the ability to read and interpret ancient authors. Declensions and conjugations, spelling, metrics, stylistics were studied on the example of Homer's language. The main textbook was the grammar of Dionysius of Thrace (II century BC), later they began to read the books of the OT (especially the Psalter) and the NT. AT school curriculum also included the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, the works of Hesiod, Pindar, Aristophanes, historians and orators. Ancient Greek the language continued to function not only in writing, but also in oral form, as evidenced by speeches and sermons, which were composed at that time and which should have been understandable to believers. Thus, the linguistic situation of this period was determined by diglossia - a divergence between colloquial and lit. language. The latter was a language of past centuries, mainly created by the Attikists and legitimized in the writings of the Church Fathers. It gradually became bookish, that is, literary, mainly in writing. However, the compilation of sermons on it testifies to the still existing organic connection between written and oral speech in Lit. and conversational options. G. i. ancient epoch (ancient Greek) functions in other historical and cultural conditions, but in the mouth of the native speakers of this language and in the conditions of the continuity of the linguistic and cultural tradition.
Political and cultural changes in Byzantium in the middle. 7th century (a sharp reduction in territory, the loss of many non-Greek regions, the decline of culture and education) had a direct impact on the language situation. The language of literature was still traditional. lit. G. Ya., from which the colloquial language was increasingly moving away both in vocabulary and in grammatical forms. Economic and cultural rise of the IX-XI centuries. led to the planting of ancient Greek. language in its classical forms, and above all the Attic dialect. By the X century. it became clear that, although in principle ancient Greek. the language in previous centuries remained lit. language, it was actively invaded by elements of the popular colloquial language, which can be called modern Greek. G. Ya's apologists tried to prevent this. ancient era. Such authors chose various forms of ancient Greek as models for their works. language from writings in the chronological range from Herodotus (5th century BC) to Lucian (2nd century AD).
In the tenth century Simeon Metaphrastus undertook a linguistic "purification" of hagiographic literature, subjecting the original language to editorial work in the direction of bringing it closer to ancient Greek, as if translating vernacular words and expressions into ancient Greek. language. The method of "translation" (μετάφρασις, hence the nickname Metaphrast) of works written in the vernacular into ancient Greek. language was used later. However, cases of reverse paraphrase are known, to Krom, for example, the historical works of Anna Komnena and Nikita Choniates were subjected. Thus, at this stage, bookish and spoken languages became to a certain extent different languages, they required translation, although a continuous linguistic and cultural tradition was maintained in the carriers of G. Ya. feeling of unity of ancient and modern Greek. language. The most difficult linguistic situation since the XII century. characterized by a combination in lit. the language of Byzantium of incomplete bilingualism (ancient Greek and modern Greek) with diglossia (the existence of colloquial and lit. forms) in the folk (modern Greek) language.
The linguistic situation in late Byzantium, after the capture of the K-field by the crusaders (1204), presented a complex picture. Diglossia still existed, but there was also an erasure of the opposition of ancient Greek. and New Greek (Byzantine) variants lit. language by mechanical mixing ancient Greek. and New Greek forms. This medieval. modern Greek language in lit. variant predominantly had a "mosaic" structure. In the same lit. The work simultaneously used ancient Greek. and New Greek forms of the same words were used by ancient Greek. and New Greek synonym words. The era of the Palaiologians (2nd half of the 13th-15th centuries) can be called the era of "2nd Atticism and 3rd sophistry". The discrepancy between lit. written language and the speech of the broad masses of the population of the empire, which had decreased in size, in all likelihood, then reached its apogee (Beletsky . 1985, p. 191). In the thirteenth century processed forms of modern Greek were gradually created. dialects, to-rye in late Byzantium began to differ. But the "processing" of folk dialectal speech was seen by educated circles of society as being as close as possible to the "learned" (ancient Greek atticized) language. The combination of these 2 styles gave different and unexpected forms of lit. language.
The existence of literature in the folk language in late Byzantium testified that the folk language began to win more and more positions from the archaic bookish language, its functional paradigm expanded. However normal development of G. I. tour was cancelled. conquest.
Modern Greek
During the Renaissance, the language of ancient Greece was perceived as clearly limited in time. independent language, little correlated with the language of Hellas, which was part of the Ottoman Empire. To understand G. I. New time the importance of ancient Greek. language was so great that the latter was called "Modern Greek", in which the concept of "Ancient Greek" is also implicitly present.
Since the 18th century there was an opposition of 2 variants of G. I. On the one hand, the language, cleared of Turkisms and oriented towards the norms of ancient Greek. lit. language (kafarevusa), and with others - colloquial and everyday folk language (dimotica). Depending on the ratio of these options, different types lit. G. i. In addition, the variant lit. Koine was determined by the influence of territorial dialects. South dialects of the Peloponnese were the basis of modern Greek. koine.
Main Features of Modern Greek Literary Koine
Novogreech. phonetics is characterized by 4 main processes: further simplification of the vowel system; simplification of consonant clusters; active process of dissimilation; the reduction of the “number of words”, which is reflected in the language in different ways - in the sound of the word, in pronunciation and in writing.
In the field of morphology, the naming system undergoes the following changes: the dative case has disappeared; simplified the system case endings; declensions were rebuilt according to 2 differential features: by gender and by the number of stems (1-basic and 2-basic); the opposition of 2 types was fixed in the declension of names from 2 and 3 case forms. In the verb system, active participles have become an indeclinable form, that is, a form close to Russian. gerund. Some ancient Greek participles were preserved as substantives. The 3rd person of the imperative has been lost, the form of which has become periphrastic. While maintaining the system of simple tense forms (present, imperfect, aorist), a consistent system of descriptive forms appeared (future, perfect, pluperfect). In historical times, only the syllabic augment remained and only under stress, but in forms with prefixes, a quantitative augment can be preserved.
Among the features of the New Greek vocabulary and word formation can be noted the use of many ancient Greek. words in parallel with new words and with words that have a new grammatical form. At the same time, the original form was perceived not as archaic, but as bookish, that is, the form is not colloquial and everyday; a large number of ancient Greek words were kept in use as archaisms; vocabulary was further developed.
With t. sp. forms of existence of modern Greek. language since the 18th century. development of lit. G. i. can be divided into several periods depending on the attitude of native speakers to ancient Greek. language. I. Archaization lit. language ("archaism", or "neo-Attikism"); the formation of the opposition "kafarevus / dimotic" - XVIII - 1st half. 19th century II. Attempts to create processed ("purified") forms of the folk language (dimotics) (καθαρισμός - purification) - ser. 19th century III. Lit. language to colloquial folk; activities of J. Psycharis (the so-called paleodimoticism) - con. 19th century IV. Lit. language to kafarevus; creation of a "simple" kafarevusa; the appearance of a "mixed" kafarevusy - early. 20th century V. Creation of a normalized grammar of the national language before the Second World War (Dimoticism); formation of modern Greek lit. Koine modern Greece. VI. Dimotika (folk language) as the language of modern. Greece.
I. In the XVIII century. figures of the Greek cultures again turned to the problem of national lit. language and insisted on the revival of ancient Greek. lit. language. They believed that the spiritual revival of the Greek. people is possible only with a return to the origins of the spiritual culture of the Greeks. In the field of language, it was ancient Greek. archaic language, which will be able to restore the continuity of the entire Hellenic national culture. An example of an archaic trend is the activity of Eugene (Bulgaris, Voulgaris) (1716-1806), author of works on history, philosophy, music, theology, translator of ancient and modern. him European philosophers. His extensive Op. "Logic" is written in ancient Greek. language, and the author insisted that philosophy could be studied only in it.
At that time, folk speech contained a lot of borrowed vocabulary (from the Turkish language, Romance, Slavic). In addition, a large number of non-standardized territorial variants were encountered in oral speech. Representatives of educated circles understandable ancient Greek. language was even closer than modern. or colloquial G. i. Again, as happened more than once in the history of G. Ya., the Attic dialect of the classical period was proclaimed as a model. Proposed pl. Cultural figures (I. Misiodakas, D. Katardzis, and others) did not find support for the thesis about the need to develop the national language: antiquity and ancient Greek. language for many remained a stronghold of national culture and a guarantee of national freedom.
Influence on the Greeks of Western Europe. culture went through great Greek. colonies in Trieste, Budapest, Vienna, Leipzig, and other cities. At this time in Zap. Europe was fond of the classical heritage of the Greeks and the subject of study was ancient Greek. language. These circumstances contributed a lot to the fact that by 1800, that is, shortly before final stage liberation struggle of the Greeks, kafarevusa defeated the popular language.
In Greece, the situation of incomplete bilingualism again arose in combination with diglossia: the functioning of the ancient G. I. as the highest stratum (lit. language, ch. arr. in writing) and folk new Greek. language as the lowest stratum (colloquial spoken language). At this time, ancient Greek the language is no longer well understood by the masses, and a translation into Dimotika is required.
When an independent Greek was formed. state-in, he immediately faced the question of the state. language, since at that time it was 2 G. I.: written - kafarevusa and oral - dimotika. Church and state The apparatus resolutely objected to the vernacular, arguing this position by the existence of a multi-dialect vernacular from Macedonia to Crete.
Since that time, a language policy has been carried out in Greece, aimed at the return of G. I. to national purity. State. the apparatus is served by a "strict" kafarevusa. Ancient Greek the language is considered by cultural figures, public education and the Church as the true basis of G. Ya., to which the New Greek should approach. language, since supporters of the Kafarevus believed that G. I. almost did not change for 2 thousand years. K ser. 19th century This is a movement for ancient Greek. language connected with the official. propaganda of the "great idea" of the restoration of Greece within the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire. The un-t created in Athens became the distributor of the “noble” kafarevusa, pl. writers and poets supported this idea. But works in the folk language (songs of klefts) have also been preserved, especially those that were created in the Ionian Islands, which were not under the rule of the Turks.
II. But it soon became clear to many that it was impossible to reverse the development of the language and that such changes were not entirely justified, since in G. I. Over the past centuries there have been more than just losses. There was resistance to the persistent archaization of G. I. ("linguistic strife," in the words of Greek linguists), demands have intensified to bring the written language closer to the spoken one. At the head of this moderate movement was the Greek. educator A. Korais, who believed that it was necessary to “purify” the language from the tour. and European borrowings and replacing them with Greek. words (ancient or newly created), but did not argue that the leading role should belong to the national language. Nevertheless, the moderate position of Korais, his conviction that the truth lies in the unification of the 2 beginnings of G. Ya., prepared the ground for the approval of dimotics, which more and more penetrated into lit. language. So, in 1856, the comedies of Aristophanes were translated into Dimotica.
III. Public upsurge in the 70s and 80s. 19th century in Greece contributed to the further expansion of the use of the living language in literature. In con. 19th century prof. The Sorbonne Psycharis theoretically substantiated the "linguistic status" of the folk grammar. and the need to use it as official. But his desire to unify many features of the vernacular and the use of words mainly only on the principle of analogy led to extreme "dimoticism". The vernacular could not be quickly unified due to the existence of many forms - from Peloponnesian Koine to island dialects.
However, the activities of Psykharis, who advocated the introduction of dimotica from national, scientific and lit. positions, forced to once again revise the norms of oral and written folk language, based on ancient Greek. lit. language. If until that time prose and dramatic works were entirely, and poetic works were mainly written in kafarevus, then in the beginning. 20th century the former mainly, and the latter entirely, began to be created on dimotic. Church, state-in and science adhered to kafarevusy and ancient Greek. language longer. In 1900, under the auspices of Cor. Olga, an attempt was made to translate the text of the NT from ancient Greek. language, because the masses did not understand it, but the purists did not allow this to be done. Some time later, A. Pallis published a translation of the NT into the vernacular in an Athenian gaz. "Acropolis" - the only one that allowed publication in the vernacular (see also Art. Bible, section "Bible Translations"). But this attempt caused unrest among the people and clashes with the police, there were killed and wounded. In 1903 prof. G. Sotiriadis published a vernacular translation of Aeschylus' Oresteia, and street riots broke out again. But, despite this, the positions of those who promoted dimotica were affirmed. In 1903, the weekly "Numas" was founded, where articles by Psykharis, Pallis, K. Palamas were published. The latter considered the only colloquial modern Greek. language, to-ry and can become a written language for the whole people.
IV. The extremes of the position of Psycharis emphasized the correctness of the middle path proposed by Korais, which led to the creation of a “simple kafarevusa” without strong archaization, which increasingly approached the oral language. The apologist for this type of kafarevusa was G. Hadzidakis, who studied folk speech and considered kafarevusa the language of the future. On the official level, the opposition of kafarevusa to dimotica intensified. In 1910, kafarevusa was approved as the only state. language. But 7 years later primary school schools were allowed to teach in dimotic, but without dialectisms and archaisms. These schools were called "mikta" (mixed, because in the senior classes teaching was conducted in kafarevus). School kafarevusa, as close as possible to spoken language, was called "mikti".
V. Supporters of both varieties G. I. understood the need for further active work on its form. The extreme dimoticism of Psycharis was smoothed over in the works of M. Triandafillides, who, in collaboration with others, wrote a grammar of dimoticism, published in 1941. Triandafillides in pl. In some cases, he retained the spelling and grammatical forms of Kafarevusa, although he mainly relied on Dimotica. He believed that the spoken language necessarily needed to be normalized, streamlined, but his grammar was not an accurate reflection of the spoken language, which retained many variants. One of the main reasons for this position is the need to maintain in G. I. etymological, rather than phonetic principle of spelling: for thousands of years of development of the Greek. pronunciation has changed so much that following the phonetic principle could in many ways. cases to interrupt the linguistic tradition.
As a result of education in the history of the New Greek. languages of 2 extreme directions (archaism - psycharism) and 2 moderate ones (kafarism - dimoticism) came to the need not to oppose, but to unite 2 principles: archaic, dating back to ancient Greek. language, and modern In the 70s. 20th century G.'s structure I. can be called "tetraglossia", which includes the following forms of G. I. Hyperkafarevusa adhered to the norms of the Hellenistic Koine and even the Attic dialect to the maximum, with some differences in syntax, vocabulary and a little in grammar (there is no, for example, dual number and optative), it was used in the Church and science. Actually, kafarevusa deviated more from the classical syntax and also did not use, for example, ancient Greek. forms of bud. time, was used in the political sections of the press, in scientific journals, in textbooks for secondary and high school. A mixed language, close to the colloquial version of G. Ya., was used in unofficial. magazine articles, in fiction. This language, which is different from the language of archaizing literature and from the language of folk songs, was characterized as “Demotika without extremes”, it can be called New Greek. lit. koine. Dimotika in many respects differed from kafarevusa in grammar, quite strongly in vocabulary, contained a large number of borrowings, had territorial variants; used in poetry and prose, in textbooks, in lit. magazines and newspapers.
VI. World War II and then Civil War in Greece 1940-1949 stopped development theoretical problems modern Greek language. Only in 1976 was the vernacular language (Dimotica) officially declared the only form of Modern Greek. language, and in 1982 a certain graphic reform was carried out: all diacritics were canceled, except for the acute accent in 2-complex and many compound words Oh. Kafarevusa has essentially fallen out of use and is found only in the official. documents, in legal proceedings or certain headings of newspapers, in the written language of the older generation.
During many centuries, the explicit or hidden existence of ancient Greek. language in parallel or in a complex interweaving with living Greek. language of Byzantium and modern. Greece has created such a complex linguistic situation that many differ in its assessment. researchers. Yes, Greek. scientists believe that it has never been determined by bilingualism, but has always been only diglossia: 2 states of one language that existed in parallel, and therefore their interaction and interpenetration are quite natural. Even if we accept the term "bilingualism" to characterize the language situation in the modern. Greece, it must be borne in mind that the Greek. bilingualism had less clear boundaries than, for example, the opposition of Latin and Romance languages, especially in Lit. language. Novogreech. the language is closely related to ancient Greek. Bilingualism affected Ch. arr. grammar (morphology and especially syntax), and in vocabulary and word formation there were never sharp boundaries between kafarevusa and dimotica. Incomplete (relative) bilingualism, which characterized for many years. centuries, the linguistic situation in the Greek-speaking environment, once again emphasizes the strength of archaic tendencies in G. Ya. and the importance of studying its ancient Greek. states. Ancient Greek the language was never realized by the carriers of G. i. as another language, even in the presence of translations from ancient Greek into modern Greek, which is associated with the peculiarities of the political and cultural history of Greece.
M. N. Slavyatinskaya
Catechism is "a book containing summary basic truths of the Christian faith and morals in a simple and clear form, usually in the form of questions and answers, and intended for the initial religious education of believers. Most dictionaries of the modern Russian language give close definitions. Moreover, in some of them the word is given in two versions: catechism and catechism. In the dictionary of V.I. Dahl's interpretation is more complete - “the initial, basic doctrine of the Christian faith; book containing this teaching || The primary and basic teaching of any science.The word itself is of Greek origin. It goes back to the noun ή κατήχησις - announcement, (oral) teaching, edification, formed from the verb κατηχέω - to announce, (orally) teach, teach. This verb is a prefix from the verb ὴχέω - make a sound, sound(cf.: ό ήχος - sound, rumor; ήὴχη- sound, noise; ή ὴχώ - echo, echo; sound, noise, scream; rumor, rumor) and contains the prefix κατα - with the meaning of the completeness of the action. About the words announce(κατηχέω) and catechumen(κατηχούμενος) materials for the dictionary of Church Slavonic paronyms are of interest: to κατηχέω - “1. educate, educate, educate... 2. tune (of a musical instrument)»; to κατηχούμενος - " preparing for baptism, one to whom the foundations of the faith have been communicated" with reference to the relevant Church Slavonic texts.
Etymological dictionaries of the Russian language indicate the mediation of the Latin language in borrowing this word: “from lat. catechesis from Greek. teaching, instruction» ; "Late Late. catechesis - catechism, an elementary course in theology< греч. katēchēsis - поучение, назидание; оглашение, от katēcheō - устно поучать, от ēcheō - звучать, от ēchō - эхо; слух, молва» . В словаре-справочнике, в котором собраны наиболее распространенные в русском языке слова латинского происхождения, включая и те, которые вошли в латынь из греческого языка, объяснение несколько иное: «Catechesis, is f (греч.: наставление, познание) - катехизис, элементарный курс богословия. С сер. XVII в., первонач. в формах catechism, catechism. Through staroslav. from Greek." .
To understand how this word penetrated into the Russian language, it is necessary to turn to its phonetic appearance. And he did not even settle in modern Russian (catechism and catechism). To understand this issue, let us turn to the traditions of the transmission of Greek words in Russian.
In modern times, two systems of phonetic transmission of ancient Greek words were identified, named after the names of the Renaissance scientists Erasmus of Rotterdam and Johann Reuchlin who proposed them. The Erasmus system correlates the pronunciation of a word with its graphics and reflects the sound of Greek words in Latin. It is accepted by most European countries and is used in Russia in gymnasium and university practice when reading secular texts. Reuchlin's system was focused on living Byzantine speech. This system is adhered to by Greek scholars, in Russia it was assimilated earlier than Erasmova, directly from the Greeks and strengthened in spiritual institutions. In the Reuchlin system, it is customary to read liturgical texts.
In the Greek noun κατήχησις we will be interested in the pronunciation of the letters η and σ, which are rendered differently in these systems. In the Erasmus tradition, η is pronounced as "e", and σ, according to the rules of the Latin language, is voiced. In the Reuchlin tradition, η is pronounced "and", while σ retains the voicelessness ("s"). Thus, in the Erasmus tradition, our word should sound like a "catechesis", and in the Rekhlinov tradition, like a "catechesis". What happened?
It turns out that in a living language, both traditions could interact: either the transformation took place according to the Latin stereotype, but was not retained ( rhetorician and retor, philosopher and philosopher), or the transformation took place according to the Greek-Byzantine stereotype ( cathedra and department, orthography and spelling), but also not always kept ( library and vivliofika, leg and cafeteria). If borrowings were included in the Russian language in a dual form, the Greek-Byzantine variants were not retained more often ( theory and feoria, physics and physic). However, mixed forms could also appear in the presence of two or more phonetic differences in one word: dithyramb(in the XVIII century - praises and dithyramb), apotheosis (apotheos and apotheosis) . The word belongs to this type catechism. Of course, from the forms presented in modern Russian ( catechism and catechism) the second one is more consistent. But even in it there is an element of mixing traditions: a voiced “z” in place of a deaf Greek “s”.
Recently, for the first time, a scientific, textually verified reprint of the famous catechism compiled by St. Philaret (Drozdov) in 1822 appeared for the first time, accompanied by a preface about the history of its creation, notes and indexes. This edition uses the less commonly used form catechism, which, perhaps, will contribute to the activation of its use in modern Russian. After all, the circulation of this book is not small at the present time: 10,000 copies. In conclusion, for clarity, we present the opening lines of this outstanding theological and literary monument.
« Question. What is an Orthodox catechism?
Answer. The Orthodox catechism is instruction in the Orthodox Christian faith, taught to every Christian for the pleasing of God and the salvation of the soul.
AT. What does the word mean catechism?
O. Catechism, translated from Greek, means announcement, verbal instruction; and according to the use from the time of the apostles, this name signifies the original teaching about the Orthodox Christian faith, which is necessary for every Christian (see: Luke 1: 4; Acts 18: 25) ".
Christianity: Dictionary / Under the general. ed. L.N. Mitrokhina et al. M., 1994. S. 193.
See, for example: Dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. A.P. Evgenieva. T. 2. M., 1981. S. 40.
Dal V.I. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language. T. 2. M., 1998. S. 98.
Ancient Greek-Russian Dictionary / Comp. THEM. Butler. T. 1. M., 1958. S. 924; Weisman A.D. Greek-Russian dictionary. M., 1991. S. 694.
Sedakova O.A. Church Slavonic-Russian paronyms: Materials for a dictionary. M., 2005. S. 222.
Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary Russian language / Per. with him. and additions by O.N. Trubachev. T. 2. M., 1967. S. 210.
Dictionary of foreign words: Actual vocabulary, interpretations, etymology / N.N. Andreeva, N.S. Arapova et al. M., 1997. S. 124.
Ilyinskaya L.S. Latin heritage in Russian: Dictionary-reference book. M., 2003. S. 86.
For more on these traditions, see: Slavyatinskaya M.N. Textbook on the ancient Greek language: Cultural and historical aspect. M., 1988. S. 158-160; Ancient Greek: Starting course/ Comp. F. Wolf, N.K. Malinauskene. Part 1. M., 2004. S. 6-8.
For details see: Romaneev Yu.A. The structure of words of Greek origin in Russian: Cand. diss. M., 1965.
A lengthy Christian catechism of the Orthodox-Catholic Eastern Church / [Compiled by St. Filaret (Drozdov); Foreword, prep. text, note. and decree: cand. ist. Sciences A.G. Dunaev]. M.: Publishing Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, 2006.
In the indicated text of the Gospel of Luke we read: "That you may know the solid foundation of the doctrine in which you have been instructed." In the original Greek, the form "was instructed" corresponds to the form of the passive aorist κατηχήθης from the verb κατηχέω already known to us. In the Acts of the Holy Apostles, a descriptive form with a passive perfect participle of the same verb ὴυ κατηχημένος is used, which is rendered similarly to the first in the Russian translation: “He was instructed in the first principles of the way of the Lord.”
GRECO-BYZANTIAN
Greek-Byzantine
Lopatin. Dictionary of the Russian language Lopatin. 2012
See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is GRECO-BYZANTINE in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:
- GRECO-BYZANTIAN full spelling dictionary Russian language.
- GRECO-BYZANTIAN in the Spelling Dictionary.
- GRECO in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
(Greco) Emilio (b. 1913) Italian sculptor. Rhythmically pointed, exquisitely stylized works of decorative plastic art ("Liya", … - GRECO CHESS PLAYER
(Gioachino Greco) - the famous Italian chess player (1600-1634), wrote in 1626 a theoretical essay on the game of chess. New ed. 1859 and ... - GRECO ARTIST in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
(el-, El Greco) - see Theotokopuli ... - GRECO in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
see El... - GRECO in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
see El... - GRECO in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
-... The first part of compound words with meanings. Greek, eg. Greek-Latin, ... - BYZANTINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
, th, th. Relating to Byzantium - the state of the 4th-15th centuries, formed after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Byzantine art. Byzantine … - GRECO in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
GRECO, see El Greco... - GRECO
(Gioachino Greco) ? the famous Italian chess player (1600-1634), wrote in 1626 a theoretical essay on the game of chess. New ed. 1859 and ... - BYZANTINE in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine th, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, Byzantine, ... - BYZANTINE in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language.
- BYZANTINE in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
adj. 1) Pertaining to Byzantium, associated with it. 2) Peculiar to Byzantium, characteristic of it. 3) Belonging to Byzantium. 4) Created, manufactured ... - BYZANTINE in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
Byzantine (from ... - BYZANTINE in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
Byzantine (from ... - BYZANTINE in the Spelling Dictionary:
Byzantine (from ... - GRECO
The first part of compound words with meaning. Greek Greco-Latin, … - BYZANTINE in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
relating to Byzantium - a state of 4-15 centuries, formed after the collapse of the Roman ... - GRECO in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
see El Greco. - (Greco) Emilio (b. 1913), Italian sculptor. Rhythmically pointed, exquisitely stylized works of decorative plastic art (“Liya”, … - BYZANTINE in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
Byzantine adj. 1) Pertaining to Byzantium, associated with it. 2) Peculiar to Byzantium, characteristic of it. 3) Belonging to Byzantium. 4) Created, ... - BYZANTINE in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
- BYZANTINE in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
adj. 1. Pertaining to Byzantium, associated with it. 2. Peculiar to Byzantium, characteristic of it. 3. Belonging to Byzantium. 4. Created, manufactured ... - THEODOR OF BYZANTINE
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Theodore of Byzantium (+ 1795), martyr. Commemorated February 17 (Greek) Originally from Constantinople. Suffered … - STEPHAN THE BYZANTINE in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". St. Stephen (VIII century), martyr. Commemorated November 28th. Holy Martyrs Stefan, Basil... - PAUL BYZANTINE in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Paul of Byzantium (+ c. 270 - 275), martyr. Commemorated June 3rd. Suffered for... - LEONTIUS OF BYZANTINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
(Jerusalem) (at the place of birth - Byzantine, at the place of residence - Jerusalem) - church historian and theologian-ereseologist († about 590). At first … - Paganism Greco-Roman in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
¬ 1) Animism in the narrow sense of the word (the cult of souls). We must recognize the oldest stage of the Greco-Roman religion as that which is for ... - BYZANTIUM* in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
Contents: Byzantium? the colony. ? Byzantine Empire. ? Byzantine literature. ? Byzantine law. ? Byzantine art. ? Byzantine coin. Byzantium ... - EL GRECO in Collier's Dictionary:
(El Greco) (c. 1541-1614), a Spanish artist of Greek origin, was born on the island of Crete, which was at that time under the rule of Venice; his … - SPAS (HONEY, APPLE, NUT) in the Dictionary of Rites and Sacraments:
SPASY (14/1, 19/6, 29/16 August) As promised, without deceiving, The sun penetrated early in the morning With an oblique stripe of saffron From the curtain to the sofa. … - FERRARO FLORENTINE CATHEDRAL in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Ferrara-Florence Cathedral 1438 - 1445, - the cathedral of the Western Church, convened by Pope Eugene IV in ... - UNION in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only a part necessary information. Union (church; lat. unio ... - STEPHAN DECHANSKY in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Stefan Urosh III, Dechansky (1285 - 1331), King of Serbia, great martyr. Memory … - MEETING OF THE LORD in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". The Presentation of the Lord, a feast of the Orthodox Church, belongs to the Twelve. Celebrated on February 2nd. AT … - SPASSKY ANATOLY ALEKSEEVICH in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Spassky Anatoly Alekseevich (1866 - 1916), professor at the Moscow Theological Academy in the Department of the History of Ancient ... - DIVISION OF THE CHURCHES in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only part of the necessary information. Christian Church, by... - LEBEDEV ALEXEY PETROVICH in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only part of the necessary information. Lebedev Alexey Petrovich (... - IRINA-PIROSHKA in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Irina-Piroshka (Piroska), in schema Xenia (1088 - 1134), empress, reverend. Memory … - JOSEPH (SEMASHKO) in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Joseph (Semashko) (1798 - 1868), Metropolitan of Lithuania and Vilna. In the world, Joseph Iosifovich ... - UNION OF BREST in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree.
- NOVEL in the Directory of Characters and Cult Objects of Greek Mythology:
I LAKAPIN Byzantine emperor in 920-945 June 115, 948 Roman came from the city of Lakapi in the theme of Likand. … - RUSSIA, DIV. CHURCH MUSIC (PREHISTORIC AND ANCIENT PERIOD) in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia.
- RUSSIA, DIV. CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY
From both ancient languages in Russia, they learned Greek earlier, and from the works written in this language, they first read and translated ... - RUSSIA, DIV. STORY in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
The main subject of historical science in Russia is the past of the native country, on which the largest number of Russian historians and ... - BOLOTOV VASILY VASILIEVICH in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
Bolotov, Vasily Vasilyevich, is a famous church historian (born December 31, 1853, died April 5, 1900). The son of a deacon of Tver ... - ANTONY ZUBKO in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
Anthony, Zubko, Minsk Orthodox archbishop (1797 - 1884), Belarusian by origin, son of a Greek Uniate priest. He studied at the Polotsk Greek Uniate Seminary, in ... - RUSSIAN SOVIET FEDERAL SOCIALIST REPUBLIC, RSFSR in big Soviet encyclopedia, TSB.
- MICHAEL PSELL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Psellus (Michael Psellos), before being tonsured - Constantine (1018, Constantinople, - about 1078 or about 1096), Byzantine politician, writer, scientist. …
One of ancient languages peace. Even today, Greek is spoken by 10 million inhabitants of Greece, most of the population of Cyprus and, of course, the Greek diaspora scattered around the world. Of course, we can say that this is not so much. But it would be in the highest degree it's strange to judge Greek based only on how many people speak it these days.
What is most interesting about this language is its amazing history: after all, the Greek language stands at the origins of everything that shaped Western thought - philosophy, literature, the Christian Church ... And therefore, in almost any European language, you can find a huge number of words with Greek roots: space, telephone, grammar, lamp, astronomy and many others. So it's safe to say that we all speak a little Greek!
A bit of history
Of course, modern Greek differs in many ways from the language spoken by the greatest thinkers of antiquity, such as Plato or Aristotle. Over the many centuries of its existence, the language has changed a lot, so the phrase "Greek" often requires clarification. The following names are used for the different stages of its development:
- Ancient Greek- the language of ancient Greece, including as part of the Roman Empire (until the 5th century AD).
- Byzantine (or Middle Greek)- the language of the Greek and Hellenized population of the Byzantine Empire (VI-XV centuries). However, many neo-Hellenistic scholars oppose this term and propose to talk about the coexistence of early modern Greek and ancient Greek: this is due to the fact that the Greek language of that period was extremely heterogeneous.
- Modern Greek It has existed since about the 15th century as the language of the Greek and Hellenized population of the late Byzantium and the Ottoman Empire. Today it is the official language of Greece and Cyprus.
XIX and XX centuries in Greece are marked by the presence of a special language situation - diglossia(this is how the simultaneous existence of two language variants is called). However, in 1976 official language became dimotica(δημοτική), but from kafarevuses(καθαρεύουσα) - a language variant oriented towards the Greek literary tradition and following ancient Greek writing standards, but with modern pronunciation - only a few elements have survived.
About Greek dialects
Most Greek regions have their own local dialects. So, for example, there are Cypriot, Cretan, Tsakonian, South Italian and Northern Greek. Dialects are exclusively oral and are not used in writing (with the exception of literary works, where the characters can speak one dialect or another). In each of the regions, there are also pronunciation features that are noticeable to a foreigner to varying degrees.
Most of the differences are between the Cypriot dialect of Greek and what is called Classical Greek. It must be said that the Cypriot dialect as a whole is characterized by the presence of the sounds “sh” and “h”, which are not present in modern Greek, as well as long vowels and duplication of consonants or their “swallowing”, which is also not typical for the modern Greek language. These phonetic differences are also fixed in writing:
Μούττη - μύτη - nose
(mutti - miti)
Όι - όχι - no
Μυάλος - μεγάλος - large
(myalos - megalos)
As you can see, the difference is quite significant, not to mention the fact that there are words that are completely different from their Greek "brothers":
Καρκόλα - κρεβάτι - bed
(karkola - krevAti)
Ιντυχάνω - μιλώ - to talk
(IndiAno - cute)
Φκάλλω - βγάζω - to take out, pull out
(fkAllo - vgAzo)
But there is no need to be afraid of these differences: no matter where in Greece or Cyprus you are, if you speak the classical Modern Greek language (which is spoken in the continental part of Greece - Athens and Thessaloniki), you will be understood everywhere without any problems!
How and where to start learning Greek
Start with the alphabet and clearly work out the pronunciation of sounds, since in Greek, along with the correct stress, it is the pronunciation that plays a decisive role: in Greek there are many seemingly similar sounds, the substitution of which can lead to curious and sometimes sad consequences. This is especially true for those sounds that are not in the Russian language.
The next step - and in this case it does not matter whether you study Greek on your own or under the guidance of a teacher - will be the development of the grammatical basis of the Greek language. Many note the similarity of the grammar of the Greek language with the grammar of the Russian language. This is partly true: both in Greek and in Russian, nouns change by gender (there are three of them, as in Russian - masculine, feminine and neuter), numbers, cases (here it is even easier for Russian speakers, since in Greek there are only cases four - nominative, accusative, genitive and vocative), and verbs have categories of conjugation, mood ...
Since Modern Greek is a simplified version of Ancient Greek, there are not so many rules compared to Russian, but quite a few exceptions. But this is what makes it even more related to the Russian language, and until you start learning Greek, you can’t even guess how much these languages have in common!
That is why it will not work to start learning Greek, like English, by memorizing a certain number of words: without getting acquainted with the grammatical structure of the Greek language, you will not be able to compose even the most simple sentences. Therefore, please be patient and take the time to study Greek grammar.
And the study of words may well turn into a game. Take, for example, the word άνθρωπος (Anfropos) - man. And what kind of science is engaged in the study of man? Anthropology! Or τραπέζι (trapEzi) - table. What are we doing at the table? We eat, that is, we eat. And you can endlessly give such examples.
Learning Greek may seem difficult at first glance. However, everything is in your hands, and success depends on the regularity and intensity of classes - better, of course, under the guidance of an experienced teacher - and subsequent language practice.
The Eastern Roman Empire and the Byzantine culture as a whole played a gigantic, not yet properly appreciated role in the preservation and transmission of the Greco-Roman philosophical and scientific heritage (including in the field of philosophy and the theory of language) to representatives of the ideology and science of the New Age.
It is the Byzantine culture that Europe owes to the achievements in the creative synthesis of the pagan ancient tradition (mainly in the late Hellenistic form) and the Christian worldview. And it remains only to regret that in the history of linguistics, insufficient attention is still paid to the contribution of Byzantine scientists to the formation of medieval linguistic teachings in Europe and the Middle East.
When characterizing the culture and science (in particular, linguistics) of Byzantium, one must take into account the specifics of the state, political, economic, cultural, and religious life in this powerful Mediterranean power that existed for more than a thousand years in a period of continuous reshaping political map Europe, the emergence and disappearance of many "barbarian" states.
The specifics of the cultural life of this state reflected a whole series of significant historical processes: early isolation within the Roman Empire; the transfer in 330 of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople, which long before that had become the leading economic, cultural and scientific center empires; the final disintegration of the Roman Empire into Western Roman and Eastern Roman in 345; the fall in 476 of the Western Roman Empire and the establishment of the complete domination of the “barbarians” in the West of Europe.
Byzantium succeeded for a long time in maintaining centralized state power over all the Mediterranean territories in Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and Western Asia, and even achieved new territorial conquests. She more or less successfully resisted the onslaught of the tribes during the period of the “great migration of peoples”.
By the 4th c. Christianity was already established here, officially recognized in the 6th century. state religion. By this time, in the struggle against pagan remnants and numerous heresies, Orthodoxy had developed. It became in the 6th century. dominant form of Christianity in Byzantium.
The spiritual atmosphere in Byzantium was determined by a long rivalry with the Latin West, which in 1204 led to the official rupture (schism) of the Greek Catholic and Roman Catholic churches and to the complete cessation of relations between them.
Having conquered Constantinople, the crusaders created a Western-style Latin Empire (Romania) on a significant part of the Byzantine territory, but it lasted only until 1261, when the Byzantine Empire was again restored, since the masses did not accept attempts to forcibly latinize state administration, culture and culture. religion.
Culturally, the Byzantines were superior to the Europeans. In many ways, they retained the late antique way of life for a long time. They were characterized by the active interest of a wide range of people in the problems of philosophy, logic, literature and language. Byzantium had a powerful cultural impact on the peoples of neighboring countries. And at the same time, until the 11th century. the Byzantines protected their culture from foreign influences and only later borrowed the achievements of Arabic medicine, mathematics, etc.
In 1453 the Byzantine Empire finally fell under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks. A mass exodus of Greek scientists, writers, artists, philosophers, religious figures, theologians to other countries, including the Muscovite state, began.
Many of them continued their activities as professors at Western European universities, humanist mentors, translators, spiritual leaders, and so on. Byzantium had a responsible historical mission to save the values of the great ancient civilization during the period of steep breaks, and this mission successfully ended with their transfer to the Italian humanists in the Pre-Renaissance period.
The features of the Byzantine science of language are largely explained by the difficult language situation in the empire. Here, the atticistic literary language, which was archaic in nature, competed with each other, a casual colloquial speech that continued the folk language of the general Hellenistic era, and an intermediate literary and colloquial koine.
AT public administration and in everyday life, the Byzantines / "Romans" initially widely used the Latin language, which gave way to the status of the official Greek only in the 7th century. If in the era of the Roman Empire there was a symbiosis of the Greek and Latin languages with a preponderance in favor of the second, then in the period of independent state development the advantage was on the side of the first. Over time, the number of people with a good command of Latin decreased, and the need arose for orders for translations of works by Western authors.
The ethnic composition of the population of the empire was very diverse from the very beginning and changed during the history of the state. Many of the inhabitants of the empire were originally Hellenized or Romanized. The Byzantines had to maintain constant contacts with speakers of a wide variety of languages - Germanic, Slavic, Iranian, Armenian, Syriac, and then Arabic, Turkic, etc.
Many of them were familiar with written Hebrew as the language of the Bible, which did not prevent them from often expressing an extremely puristic attitude, contrary to church dogmas, to borrowings from it. In the 11th-12th centuries. - after the invasion and settlement of numerous Slavic tribes on the territory of Byzantium and before the formation of independent states by them - Byzantium was in fact a Greek-Slavic state.
Byzantine philosophers-theologians of the 2nd-8th centuries. (Origen, Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Proclus, Maximus the Confessor, Similiky, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, John Chrysostom, Leonty, John Philomon, John of Damascus, many of whom were officially recognized as “saints” and “fathers of the church” ) along with Western representatives of patristics, they took an active part in the development of Christian dogmas with the involvement of the worldview ideas of Plato and partly Aristotle, in the development of a coherent philosophy of language within the framework of the Christian system of views, in the preparation for isolating scholastic logic from the philosophy (together with logical grammar).
They had a considerable influence on representatives of contemporary and subsequent Western philosophy and science. Later Byzantine theologians also addressed the philosophical problems of language (Michael Psellos, Maxim Planud, Gregory Palamas).
Indicative (unlike the Latin West) careful attitude Byzantine church and monasteries to the preservation and rewriting of ancient (pagan in their content) monuments. Associated with this process of rewriting was the transition to the 9th and 10th centuries. to a minuscule letter.
I.P. Susov. History of linguistics - Tver, 1999
