Blow Given or Received Dictionary 1794. Dictionary of the Russian Academy
Russian word excellent benefit to the one who broughtAbout the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy"
Parts I-VI. St. Petersburg, 1789-1794
Member Russian Academy Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, at a solemn meeting of the Imperial Russian Academy on December 5, 1818, said: “The Russian Academy marked the very beginning of being its creation, the most important for language, necessary for Authors, necessary for anyone who wants to offer thoughts with clarity, who wants to understand themselves and others. The Complete Dictionary published by the Academy is one of those phenomena with which Russia surprises attentive foreigners. Italy, France, England, Germany were already famous for many great Writers, not yet having a Dictionary: we had church, spiritual books; had Poetics, Writers, but only one truly classical (Lomonosov), and presented a system of language that can equal the famous creations of the Academy of Florence and Paris. It is difficult to say whether Karamzin consciously used the word "system" and what content he put into it, but it is this word that better than many others reflects the idea and implementation of the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (SAR).
Creation of the Russian Academy
In 1783, a conversation took place between Empress Catherine II and Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova, which was destined to go down in the history of Russian linguistics. In her Notes, Dashkova says that once, when she was walking with the Empress in the Tsarskoye Selo Garden, the conversation turned to the beauty and richness of the Russian language. “I expressed my surprise why the empress, who is able to appreciate his dignity and is a writer herself, never thought about founding the Russian Academy. I noticed that only rules are needed and good dictionary in order to put our language in an independent position from foreign words and expressions that have neither the energy nor the power inherent in our word.
“I myself am surprised,” said Catherine, “why this idea has not yet been carried out. Such an institution for the improvement of the Russian language often occupied me, and I have already given orders regarding it. The Empress instructed the Princess to draw up the Charter of the proposed Academy and the work plan. Soon followed
Supreme Decree on the establishment of the Russian Academy and the appointment of E. R. Dashkova as its president.
Among the points of the Charter, the following draws attention: “The Academy is the guardian of the language; and therefore, with all possible zeal for the common good, it must arm itself against everything unusual, alien, unintelligible, obscure, immoral in the language.
Getting started with the dictionary.
Compilers
After the approval of the Charter of the Academy, a lot of preparatory work began to create a dictionary. Princess E. R. Dashkova herself not only organized the work, but collected words.
Academician I. I. Lepekhin participated in the selection of materials, supervised the publication, as a natural scientist described words from the area natural sciences. As specialists in their fields, academicians were engaged in defining words for the dictionary: S. Ya. Rumovsky (mathematician, physicist, chemist, geographer, expert in ancient languages), N. Ya. defined units of measure, weight, money), A.P. Protasov (doctor of medicine - terms of anatomy and physiology), P.B. Inokhodtsev (astronomer, mathematician, geographer and ethnographer - used his dialectological materials), I.N. Boltin ( historian), I. I. Melissino (rector of Moscow University - involved in this work), S. E. Desnitsky (professor of Moscow University - Old Russian legal terminology).
Persons of clerical rank were active workers on the dictionary - Metropolitan Gabriel, the author of the "Church Dictionary" P. A. Alekseev, D. Semenov-Rudnev, who collected and determined words from church books.
choice of words and illustrative material outstanding writers - M. M. Kheraskov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, I. F. Bogdanovich, M. I. Verevkin and others; Fonvizin, in addition, wrote "Inscription for compiling an explanatory dictionary of Slavic-Russian". In total, about 60 people took part in the work on the dictionary; many of them for their selfless work were awarded a large gold medal with the inscription "The Russian word brought excellent benefit."
Thus, the entire color of Russian science, culture and the church of that time took part in the creation of the dictionary. Empress Catherine II herself was a constant inspiration for all dictionary and linguistic work in general in Russia.
Problem posing
The compilers of the SAR had to solve five main problems: the problem of vocabulary, the problem of sources, the problem of spelling of words, the problem of stylistic and semantic description of vocabulary.
1. The Glossary of ATS was the first attempt in Russia to collect the main vocabulary Russian literary language and give an interpretation and stylistic description of each word. The dictionary included 43,257 words. The authors of the dictionary determined that their work should be a dictionary of the Slavonic Russian language: “The Slavonic Russian language mostly consists of Slavonic, or, more clearly, it has its basis on it; although, in other respects, a great many words contain Russian words proper, due to the properties of which some of the Slavic language received a different ending, a different formation, while others received a new meaning.
The criterion for selecting words for the dictionary was the principle of "general use". On this basis, the compilers of the dictionary made it a rule to exclude from the vocabulary: a) proper names; b) professionalisms that are “only known to scientists and artists”; c) "all words and speeches of decency are contrary"; d) obsolete archaisms, "retaining, however, those that contribute to the understanding of ancient deeds, rituals or customs, like Trizna"; e) “all regional words, except for those that, by their clarity, strength and brevity, can serve to enrich the language, or mean those countries of the work, or, in the end, can serve to replace foreign words”; f) "all foreign words introduced without need, and which are equivalent to Slavonic or Russian."
2. The range of textual sources used by the compilers was sufficient to determine and fix the meanings of words. The main source, especially at the first stage, was church books, but as the dictionary was being worked on, the use of works by secular writers became more and more noticeable.
3. In church texts there are a number of doublet letters, and non-church texts of the 18th century, due to the influence of living pronunciation, show high variability in spelling; many colloquial and foreign words had several spellings, for example: kanat - konat, heel - kobluk, hook - hook, glass - stokan, tavar - goods, lye - scholok, etc .; therefore, the question of the rules for the spelling of words was very acute. The approach of the compilers of the Dictionary to solving this problem was as follows: “The Academy considered it necessary to follow its spelling of church books in the Dictionary, until this very work opens up to it contented ways to approve once and for all the rules of spelling.”
Thus, the compilers of the dictionary, like Lomonosov, proclaimed tradition as the basis of their attitude to spelling problems; in other words, the traditional-historical principle of Russian spelling, which prevails to this day, originates from the SAR.
4. The creators of the SAR managed for the first time in Russia to solve the main stylistic problems of describing the vocabulary of the literary language. Theoretical basis SAR was the stylistic system of Lomonosov, which affected primarily the division of the vocabulary.
The leading position was occupied by vocabulary of Slavic origin, it was denoted by the litter "Sl." - Slavonic. The composition of this category was very wide. It included: a) archaic words and meanings, as well as archaic grammatical forms characteristic of the Church Slavonic, and not the Russian language - banya 'ablution', conversation 'property of the language, adverb'; spiritual teaching ', rampage 'simplicity, ignorance', clothes, enter, enter, bakh, walk, wise, nyu, dska, osm; b) genetic Slavicisms with a touch of bookishness, used in different genres and styles of speech - breg, mortal ‘weak, crushable, meagre’; c) actually stylistic Slavicisms, which constituted the main attribute of the high style: vlas, city, hand, daughter, midnight, fisherman.
This category is stylistically opposed to the category of words with the mark "In space." - “Used in common or in conversations”, therefore, this category includes all colloquial vocabulary in its difference from the book, for example: “ERSH, just iorsh, sha. with. m. 1) Perca cernua. The fish is predatory, but tasty and easy to feed.”
See also spring and autumn, copper and copper; I walk, walk, walk, walk and walk, walk, walk, walk; from a young age and from a young age. Among the words marked "In space." there are not only colloquial words used in the middle and low styles, but also dialect words, for example: “Vyalitsa, or simply Vyalitsa, tsy. with. well. Blizzard".
The interpretations specifically stipulate the vernacular meanings of Slavic words, for example:
“Great, huh. with. m. 1) Violation, transgression of the law of God; a deed contrary to any of the commandments of God. Everyone who commits sin, the slave is sin. John: vIII. 34. All unrighteousness is sin. I John. V.17.<∙∙∙>2) in common: Wine. This is my sin"; “Dare, niya. with. cf. 1) Speaking in good side: cheerfulness, courage, courage in what. Forgive my boldness that ... Worthy of speech with boldness. Deyan. 11. 29. Seeing Peter's boldness. There. IV. 13. Thank God to receive boldness. There. XXVIII. 15. 2) In ordinary language, it is said in a bad way and means: groundless, reckless enterprise in what, or impoliteness, immodesty; immoderate, excessive courage. It is worth it to be punished for such daring. Unforgivable boldness. His boldness is immeasurable.”
Later, in the literary language of the 19th century, some of these words, having lost their connotation of expressiveness and reducedness, will move into the category neutral words, for example: to be, quite, heat, arrogant, tasty, baggy, youth, silently, importunate, stray, thought, immediately, good luck, prim; the same applies to phraseology: be with money, bury yourself alive, lower your wings, speak through your teeth, pout your lips, he is not like you. Other words, retaining their expressive-emotional connotation of rudeness, familiarity, swearing, will form the category of colloquial words in the modern sense of the word; these are the words: burda, eat, die, horse, bastard, henchman, snore, swindler, idler, stab, mouth, deadhead, turuses, grab, grunt, nonsense, tricks; to an even greater extent, this applies to phraseology: to survive out of your mind, turn up your nose, take out the rubbish from the hut, headlong, keep your eyes open, sharpen your skis, fill your pocket, hang your nose, catch a cold, blow your feet. The fall of the classicist system of three styles led to the release of the stylistic energy of these words, turning them into truly stylistic synonyms for high and neutral words.
5. The achievements of the SAR in the field of semantics are the solution of the problems of polysemy, homonymy, phraseological conditionality of meanings. Theoretical ideas about the semantics of the word were outlined in the dictionary project, the authors of which were D. Fonvizin, N. Leontiev, I. Lepekhin, S. Rumovsky, headed by Metropolitan Gabriel. Thus, the ambiguity was evaluated by the compilers as a great blessing and dignity of the language: "It is necessary to make great efforts to explain this metaphorical meaning, which constitutes the main abundance of languages, which is achieved without the reproduction of words." At the same time, the compilers were aware that the dictionary could not establish and describe the whole variety of actual and potential figurative meanings: “In other words, as a metaphorical signification of a word is not always so defined and limited that it could not receive some distribution according to the mind and imagination of writing, it follows from this that it is not possible to strictly exact a Dictionary. All metaphorical signs and appropriations are enough, if there are more common ones in it. The figurative meanings of words were indicated by an asterisk (*).
The main semantic procedure in describing a word in SAR was the establishment of its own, primary, or initial, meaning of the word, and then - common, metaphorical meanings. Describing the progress of the work, the compilers noted that it was necessary “to determine the primitive and exact meaning of words; observe the various shadows of their signs; to deduce deviations or their passage into another meaning. In this description of the semantic procedure, the deep idea of the semantic expansion of the meaning of a word from the primary to all its filiations deserves attention. Such theoretical setting determined the increased attention of the compilers of the SAR to etymology, but in an era when scientific etymology based on the comparative historical method did not yet exist, the compilers were not always able to correctly determine the original meaning of the word. For example, the meanings of the word "impudent" in CAP are described as follows: "Insolent. 1. Sassy, daring. Insolent person. 2. * With regard to the winds: strong, stormy, impetuous, ”however, the second meaning can hardly be recognized as a metaphorical use of the first. In the Trilingual Lexicon early XVIII century, it is correctly indicated that the original meaning of this adjective is ‘sudden’, with which its figurative meanings are associated.
Different meanings of one word, at the suggestion of Lepekhin, began to be denoted with the help of numbers, which then entered the practice of not only Russian, but also European lexicography. The interpretation of meanings was carried out with the help of etymological references, "estates", that is, synonyms, detailed definitions, or both; meanings were also demonstrated by means of quotations from various texts and phrases invented by the compilers themselves.
For example: “THE ENEMY, ha. with. m. 1) Opponent, enemy; actually refers to people who in war openly do violence to each other. My enemies will reap, and I will comprehend. Psalm. XVII. 38. Overcome, defeat enemies. On the ditch, on the rampart run by enemies fortified. M. Lom. Often in this signification it is used in the singular as a collective name. The enemy is approaching, advancing. 2) In a broad signification, it means a person who hates another, or has an aversion to something; villain, hater; it simply says the enemy. If your enemy is hungry, satiate him. Prov. XXV. 22. Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you. Matt. V. 44. The enemy of lies, drunkenness. Do not let your enemies rejoice / With your unjust enmity. M. Lom.
The compilers of the Dictionary took into account various spheres of the use of words - poetry, eloquence (“ornate syllable”), church and old books, science, technology, art, crafts, colloquial, regional dialects, - in each of which there is a development of special figurative meanings. For example:
“IRON. 1) The metal is of a gray color, not as heavy and viscous as copper, but much harder and more elastic than any other metal, highly malleable and malleable, from which all kinds of weapons, most of the handicraft tools, and many other things are made. 2) In an ornate style, and especially among the Poetics, it is taken instead of a sword, a spear, and in general for any weapon. It fell into our hands: we took out the iron: / Crimson jets flowed swiftly. Tragedy. Sinav. and Truv.
Describing the semantics of words, the compilers of the SAR drew attention to the fact that their semantic "deviations" often depend on their "conjugation" with other words, i.e., on their lexical compatibility. It is believed that this problem arose before linguistics when the general task of creating machine translation was solved, however, as we see, it was already the subject of consideration by philologists of the 18th century. For example:
"ALIVE. 1) Enjoying life, having life. 2) This name is given by excellence to God, to mean that there is no one else but God, who lives and exists without beginning and without end. 3) * Speaking of a person, it is opposed to a sluggish one. He is the liveliest child. 4) * In relation to things, it means: a) Speaking of vegetation: unharmed, whole, safe. In winter, flowers are kept alive behind glass. M. L. b) In Sl. tongue: leading to eternal bliss. Give birth to us in hope alive. 1. Peter. 1. 3. c) Explicit, obvious, real. You have a living example of imitation in the affairs of your parent. It is also said: Living mind. Living imagination. Fast, ardent, sharp mind; sharp, penetrating imagination, gifted with the ability to quickly and easily understand and decide. - Living expressions: i.e., filled with wit, ardor in the imagination; or words strong and depicting exactly what is offered.
Probably the most remarkable feature of the SAR was the nested arrangement of words according to the “word order”. “For the first time, this procedure was recognized by the Academy for the approval of the language as necessary; for through this root, power, different use in different cases, complexity, evasion or passage into a different meaning, poignancy, and allegoricalness of words and speeches dependent on them, are interpreted and explained in one place. This is probably what Karamzin had in mind when he said that the SAR introduced a "system of language."
Indeed, the alphabetical way of arranging words, with all its practical convenience, represents the dictionary of the language as a mechanical conglomerate of words that are not interconnected by anything, while the nested way reveals the systemic connections of words - etymological, derivational, semantic, stylistic, to a lesser extent - synonymous and antonymous, that is, introduces the reader, so to speak, into the interior of the language. So, under the word DOBA “time, time, occasion; also age”, such derivatives are given as: necessary, necessary, need, need, drug, befits, like, likeness, like, like, like, like, like and like, unmatched, unmatched, reverend, reverend, reverend, highly reverend , vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, likened, likened, likened, likened, vouchsafed, rich, rich, comfortable, convenient, convenient, uncomfortable, convenient, comfortable, uncomfortable, as well as expressions: reverend father, highly reverend father.
Word examination on the background of the nest related words, units against the background of the whole belongs to the most valuable achievements of the SAR: it opens up to the reader such sides of the word that go unnoticed in the alphabetical dictionary. Learning a language using such a dictionary should be an effective and exciting activity, since in the minds of students it will not be disparate facts that will “settle”, but systemic, meaningful connections and relationships, when one linguistic phenomenon will be explained through another.
Kamchatnov Alexander Mikhailovich
linguist, doctor of philological sciences, professor at Moscow State Pedagogical University
60. Dictionaries of Church Slavonic and Russian lit languages, created before 1830. "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" 1789-1794
The main stages in the history of Russian vocabulary coincide in general terms with the stages in the development of lexicography in Western Europe.
At the origins of vocabulary in Russia, as in the West, are handwritten glossaries; the earliest surviving glossary contains 174 words and dates back to 1282. The discrepancy between bookish Church Slavonic and colloquial Old Russian, as well as the need to communicate with foreigners, especially Greeks, led to the emergence in Ancient Russia of several types of dictionaries, among which it is customary to distinguish dictionaries of proper names (onomasticons, for example a dictionary of biblical names called Jewish speech); the so-called tributaries (from the word "parable") - collections of words to which a symbolic meaning was attributed; Slavic-Russian dictionaries that interpreted incomprehensible words of the book language (for example, Interpretation of inconveniently cognizable speech); and translation dictionaries (for example, Greek subtlety speech).
In the 16th century new principles for compiling dictionaries are being formed, in particular, the alphabetical principle of the arrangement of material is gradually being approved. With the advent of printing, printed dictionaries also appeared. The first one, Lexis, that is, the sayings are briefly collected from Slovenian[those. Church Slavonic, not to be confused with modern Slovene] language into simple Russian dialect interpreted Lawrence Zizaniy Tustanovsky was published in Vilna (Vilnius) in 1596. In 1627, a much larger volume (about 7 thousand words) was published in Kyiv Slavonic Russian lexicon and interpretation of names Pamva Berynda, republished in 1653 and had a significant impact on subsequent dictionaries. Numerous translation dictionaries appeared in the same period.
With the reforms of Peter the Great, many foreign words came into the Russian language, which stimulated the emergence of numerous dictionaries of foreign vocabulary, many of which remained in manuscript. The first was Lexicon of new vocabularies in alphabetical order compiled at the beginning of the century. In 1771, the etymological dictionary of F. Gelterhof appeared Russian Cellarius. Almost simultaneously (in 1773) the first Russian dictionary of synonyms was published. The experience of the Russian estate D.I. Fonvizin, which contained 32 synonymous rows.
In the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, under the leadership of M.V. Lomonosov, preparatory work began on the creation of an explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, and in 1783 the Russian Academy was established, in the bosom of which a national lexicographic project unfolded, in many respects similar to the dictionary project of the French Academy. Its result was Dictionary of the Russian Academy, published in 6 parts in 1789-1794. This first explanatory dictionary of the Russian language contained 43,257 words, and its output became milestone in the Russian lexicographic tradition. The second expanded edition was published in 1806-1822, and the four-volume edition became the third edition of the academic dictionary. Church Slavonic and Russian Dictionary volume of 114,749 words, published in 1847.
In the 19th century Vocabulary in Russia has reached a significant development. Dictionaries were created, and above all Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language V.I.Dalya (first edition - 1863-1866; third edition under the editorship of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay - 1903-1911), which are actively used to this day and occupy an important place in modern Russian culture
Catherine II was a patriot of Russia, the development of culture was not alien to her, Rus. was fluent in the language. Thanks to Ek. II, a real Russian theater appeared in Russia. This gave a big flash of Russian. dramaturgy. 3rd third of the 18th century - the era of drama. The creators of Russian plays appear. This is the beginning of Russian orthoepy, a tradition of correct pronunciation is being formed, a standard is being formed. The appearance of thick magazines as the focus of intellectual action. Discussions. Becomes significant letter as Lit. genre. The desire to imitate the actions of Europe. Following the example and laws of fr. yard forms a Russian court. People at this time learn to write openly, with reflections on the world, life. Salon conversations - arise at this time. They simply assume communication on various topics (what is happening in the world) - as a rule, in French. language.
Alignment of 3 calms from the 50s. 18th century => contradictory state of vocabulary (many borrowings, deviations from the Lomonosov canon). Gradual development of a common style. The concept of the dictionary was born by Dashkova and was supported by Catherine II. It was necessary to enlighten the society and reform the vocabulary. Vocabulary: theory for the selection of vocabulary - Lomonosov. Dashkova involved Knyazhnin, Fonvizin, Bogdanovich, Derzhavin (later Vostokov), Musin-Pushkin, mathematicians, naturalists, physicists, Russian antiquities, etc.
Ek II made an attempt to create a Russian academy to create a dictionary. Russian vocabulary was codified - the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (SAR) was created, which set the task of describing the vocabulary of the literary language. The French had an encyclopedic dictionary, Ek II had an explanatory dictionary in Russian. language. The founders were prominent writers of that time and adherents of the humanities. Sciences. The dictionary includes popular vocabulary and some borrowings, but foreign. words there was a barrier. There are very few borrowings from the 18th century. The SAR paid attention to the vocabulary of the Central Slavonic and Latin/Greek. origin [ex. pif and k - monkey from Greek. πισηφ - pete e k - through Byzantine reading] Very good dictionary design with many systems of new labels (which are still in use). There was stylistic, grammatical normalization and the word was a unit of the Russian system. language and Russian culture. The SAR met with a wide response, in the 10s of the 19th century it was republished, doubled and in this form went to the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. SAR - the first step forward in Russian. lexicography. The detailed development of the meanings was first in the SAR.
The dictionary is built according to the nesting principle - the influence of fr. [“detective” - search for “and”, because “search, seek, detective”] SAR is a worthy chord for improving Russian. language. A clear turn towards razg. speech, codification of norms. .Created very quickly. Glossary of over 43,000 words. The criteria for selecting vocabulary from different authors diverged: Church leaders tried to introduce Church Slavonicisms (including "dilapidated"), contrary to Lomonosov's theory. Slavicisms were introduced: non-vociferous vocabulary (vran - see the raven). Attitude towards barbarism. According to Lomonosov: take only what is necessary and what is not, if possible, translate. In the 2nd floor 18th century purism was fashionable, and even many assimilated barbarisms did not enter the dictionary. In total, from foreign vocabulary - about 700 foreign words (few), mostly of Latin-Greek origin, old; vocabulary included in the Petrine period was not included in the dictionary. Some words that were part of the active stock and existed in the ego were not included in the dictionary (the theory of purism affected). Dashkova suggested: if a foreign word is often found, then it should be entered into the dictionary, but with a reference to the Russian word (botanist - see herbalist, opponent - see contradictor, dessert - see snacks, snacks). Russian word was often invented, the translation was inaccurate.
Low style: vernacular, peasant vocabulary, dialectisms. It needed reflection and reflection (with restrictive marks: colloquial, proto-nar., region). Colloquial was understood as the words used by the common people, that is, unlearned, low, non-different, not characteristic of a noble society. Scientific terminology. Vocabulary without stylistic marks, selected according to the Lomonosov canon. The meaning of the dictionary in the normalization of the Russian language of the 18th century. The principle of interpreting semantics: 1) synonymous substitutions; 2) an encyclopedic method (for terms, concepts are revealed). The dictionary was also historical: words from written monuments, mainly historicisms (veche, chain mail), entered. The combination of 2 types - normative-stylistic and historical - is unsuccessful. The authors failed to combine, and it was impossible, besides, historical knowledge was insufficient. The dictionary quickly sold out and was appreciated by contemporaries.
Lit. 18th century language:
- morphological syntax is a consequence of the influence of fr. and German. languages (verb at the end). Understanding language is dictated by morphology. The morphological syntax of colloquial speech is not peculiar; makes speech difficult to understand. App. - in postposition (as in European languages), although for r.ya. typical adj. in preposition
– unstructured semantics
- abundance of relative adjectives. (which are composed literally on the go), non-vocabulary
- excessive semantics [I quickly fly along cast-iron rails, thinking my own thought] - “butter oil” - a repetition to stake out thoughts. In modern language does not have this - everything superfluous is removed.
are simple metaphors. They keep not on a complex of signs, but on one sign (red as fire, yellow as sand).
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About the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy"
Parts I-VI. St. Petersburg, 1789-1794
Member of the Russian Academy Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin at the solemn meeting of the Imperial Russian Academy on December 5, 1818 said: “The Russian Academy marked the very beginning of being its creation, the most important for the language, necessary for Authors, necessary for anyone who wants to offer thoughts with clarity, who wants to understand himself and others. The Complete Dictionary published by the Academy is one of those phenomena with which Russia surprises attentive foreigners. Italy, France, England, Germany were already famous for many great Writers, not yet having a Dictionary: we had church, spiritual books; had Poetics, Writers, but only one truly classical (Lomonosov), and presented a system of language that can equal the famous creations of the Academy of Florence and Paris. It is difficult to say whether Karamzin consciously used the word "system" and what content he put into it, but it is this word that better than many others reflects the idea and implementation of the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (SAR).
Creation of the Russian Academy
In 1783, a conversation took place between Empress Catherine II and Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova, which was destined to go down in the history of Russian linguistics. In her Notes, Dashkova says that once, when she was walking with the Empress in the Tsarskoye Selo Garden, the conversation turned to the beauty and richness of the Russian language. “I expressed my surprise why the empress, who is able to appreciate his dignity and is a writer herself, never thought about founding the Russian Academy. I noticed that only rules and a good dictionary are needed to put our language in an independent position from foreign words and expressions that have neither the energy nor the power inherent in our word.
“I myself am surprised,” said Catherine, “why this idea has not yet been carried out. Such an institution for the improvement of the Russian language often occupied me, and I have already given orders regarding it. The Empress instructed the Princess to draw up the Charter of the proposed Academy and the work plan. Soon followed
Supreme Decree on the establishment of the Russian Academy and the appointment of E. R. Dashkova as its president.
Among the points of the Charter, the following draws attention: “The Academy is the guardian of the language; and therefore, with all possible zeal for the common good, it must arm itself against everything unusual, alien, unintelligible, obscure, immoral in the language.
Getting started with the dictionary.
Compilers
After the approval of the Charter of the Academy, a lot of preparatory work began to create a dictionary. Princess E. R. Dashkova herself not only organized the work, but collected words.
Academician I. I. Lepekhin participated in the selection of materials, supervised the publication, as a natural scientist described words from the field of natural sciences. As specialists in their fields, academicians were engaged in defining words for the dictionary: S. Ya. Rumovsky (mathematician, physicist, chemist, geographer, expert in ancient languages), N. Ya. defined units of measure, weight, money), A.P. Protasov (doctor of medicine - terms of anatomy and physiology), P.B. Inokhodtsev (astronomer, mathematician, geographer and ethnographer - used his dialectological materials), I.N. Boltin ( historian), I. I. Melissino (rector of Moscow University - involved in this work), S. E. Desnitsky (professor of Moscow University - Old Russian legal terminology).
Persons of clerical rank were active workers on the dictionary - Metropolitan Gabriel, the author of the "Church Dictionary" P. A. Alekseev, D. Semenov-Rudnev, who collected and determined words from church books.
The selection of words and illustrative material was carried out by outstanding writers - M. M. Kheraskov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, I. F. Bogdanovich, M. I. Verevkin and others; Fonvizin, in addition, wrote "Inscription for compiling an explanatory dictionary of Slavic-Russian". In total, about 60 people took part in the work on the dictionary; many of them for their selfless work were awarded a large gold medal with the inscription "The Russian word brought excellent benefit."
Thus, the entire color of Russian science, culture and the church of that time took part in the creation of the dictionary. Empress Catherine II herself was a constant inspiration for all dictionary and linguistic work in general in Russia.
Problem posing
The compilers of the SAR had to solve five main problems: the problem of vocabulary, the problem of sources, the problem of spelling of words, the problem of stylistic and semantic description of vocabulary.
1. The Glossary of SAR was the first attempt in Russia to collect the main vocabulary of the Russian literary language and give an interpretation and stylistic description of each word. The dictionary included 43,257 words. The authors of the dictionary determined that their work should be a dictionary of the Slavonic Russian language: “The Slavonic Russian language mostly consists of Slavonic, or, more clearly, it has its basis on it; although, in other respects, a great many words contain Russian words proper, due to the properties of which some of the Slavic language received a different ending, a different formation, while others received a new meaning.
The criterion for selecting words for the dictionary was the principle of "general use". On this basis, the compilers of the dictionary made it a rule to exclude from the vocabulary: a) proper names; b) professionalisms that are “only known to scientists and artists”; c) "all words and speeches of decency are contrary"; d) obsolete archaisms, "retaining, however, those that contribute to the understanding of ancient deeds, rituals or customs, like Trizna"; e) “all regional words, except for those that, by their clarity, strength and brevity, can serve to enrich the language, or mean those countries of the work, or, in the end, can serve to replace foreign words”; f) "all foreign words introduced without need, and which are equivalent to Slavonic or Russian."
2. The range of textual sources used by the compilers was sufficient to determine and fix the meanings of words. The main source, especially at the first stage, was church books, but as the dictionary was being worked on, the use of works by secular writers became more and more noticeable.
3. In church texts there are a number of doublet letters, and non-church texts of the 18th century, due to the influence of living pronunciation, show high variability in spelling; many colloquial and foreign words had several spellings, for example: kanat - konat, heel - kobluk, hook - hook, glass - stokan, tavar - goods, lye - scholok, etc .; therefore, the question of the rules for the spelling of words was very acute. The approach of the compilers of the Dictionary to solving this problem was as follows: “The Academy considered it necessary to follow its spelling of church books in the Dictionary, until this very work opens up to it contented ways to approve once and for all the rules of spelling.”
Thus, the compilers of the dictionary, like Lomonosov, proclaimed tradition as the basis of their attitude to spelling problems; in other words, the traditional-historical principle of Russian spelling, which prevails to this day, originates from the SAR.
4. The creators of the SAR managed for the first time in Russia to solve the main stylistic problems of describing the vocabulary of the literary language. The theoretical basis of the SAR was the stylistic system of Lomonosov, which affected primarily the division of the vocabulary.
The leading position was occupied by vocabulary of Slavic origin, it was denoted by the litter "Sl." - Slavonic. The composition of this category was very wide. It included: a) archaic words and meanings, as well as archaic grammatical forms characteristic of the Church Slavonic, and not the Russian language - banya 'ablution', conversation 'property of the language, adverb'; spiritual teaching ', rampage 'simplicity, ignorance', clothes, enter, enter, bakh, walk, wise, nyu, dska, osm; b) genetic Slavicisms with a touch of bookishness, used in different genres and styles of speech - breg, mortal ‘weak, crushable, meagre’; c) actually stylistic Slavicisms, which constituted the main attribute of the high style: vlas, city, hand, daughter, midnight, fisherman.
This category is stylistically opposed to the category of words with the mark "In space." - “Used in common or in conversations”, therefore, this category includes all colloquial vocabulary in its difference from the book, for example: “ERSH, just iorsh, sha. with. m. 1) Perca cernua. The fish is predatory, but tasty and easy to feed.”
See also spring and autumn, copper and copper; I walk, walk, walk, walk and walk, walk, walk, walk; from a young age and from a young age. Among the words marked "In space." there are not only colloquial words used in the middle and low styles, but also dialect words, for example: “Vyalitsa, or simply Vyalitsa, tsy. with. well. Blizzard".
The interpretations specifically stipulate the vernacular meanings of Slavic words, for example:
“Great, huh. with. m. 1) Violation, transgression of the law of God; a deed contrary to any of the commandments of God. Everyone who commits sin, the slave is sin. John: vIII. 34. All unrighteousness is sin. I John. V.17.<∙∙∙>2) in common: Wine. This is my sin"; “Dare, niya. with. cf. 1) Speaking in a good way: cheerfulness, courage, courage in what. Forgive my boldness that ... Worthy of speech with boldness. Deyan. 11. 29. Seeing Peter's boldness. There. IV. 13. Thank God to receive boldness. There. XXVIII. 15. 2) In ordinary language, it is said in a bad way and means: groundless, reckless enterprise in what, or impoliteness, immodesty; immoderate, excessive courage. It is worth it to be punished for such daring. Unforgivable boldness. His boldness is immeasurable.”
Later, in the literary language of the 19th century, some of these words, having lost their tinge of expressiveness and inferiority, will move into the category of neutral words, for example: be, quite, heat, arrogant, tasty, baggy, youth, silently, importunate, stray, meditation, immediately , luck, prudish; the same applies to phraseology: be with money, bury yourself alive, lower your wings, speak through your teeth, pout your lips, he is not like you. Other words, retaining their expressive-emotional connotation of rudeness, familiarity, swearing, will form the category of colloquial words in the modern sense of the word; these are the words: burda, eat, die, horse, bastard, henchman, snore, swindler, idler, stab, mouth, deadhead, turuses, grab, grunt, nonsense, tricks; to an even greater extent, this applies to phraseology: to survive out of your mind, turn up your nose, take out the rubbish from the hut, headlong, keep your eyes open, sharpen your skis, fill your pocket, hang your nose, catch a cold, blow your feet. The fall of the classicist system of three styles led to the release of the stylistic energy of these words, turning them into truly stylistic synonyms for high and neutral words.
5. The achievements of the SAR in the field of semantics are the solution of the problems of polysemy, homonymy, phraseological conditionality of meanings. Theoretical ideas about the semantics of the word were outlined in the dictionary project, the authors of which were D. Fonvizin, N. Leontiev, I. Lepekhin, S. Rumovsky, headed by Metropolitan Gabriel. Thus, the ambiguity was evaluated by the compilers as a great blessing and dignity of the language: "It is necessary to make great efforts to explain this metaphorical meaning, which constitutes the main abundance of languages, which is achieved without the reproduction of words." At the same time, the compilers were aware that the whole variety of actual and potential figurative meanings could not be established and described in the dictionary: mind and imagination of writing, it follows from this that it is impossible to strictly exact a Dictionary. All metaphorical signs and appropriations are enough, if there are more common ones in it. The figurative meanings of words were indicated by an asterisk (*).
The main semantic procedure in describing a word in SAR was the establishment of its own, primary, or initial, meaning of the word, and then - common, metaphorical meanings. Describing the progress of the work, the compilers noted that it was necessary “to determine the primitive and exact meaning of words; observe the various shadows of their signs; to deduce deviations or their passage into another meaning. In this description of the semantic procedure, the deep idea of the semantic expansion of the meaning of a word from the primary to all its filiations deserves attention. Such a theoretical setting determined the increased attention of the compilers of the SAR to etymology, but in an era when scientific etymology based on the comparative historical method did not yet exist, the compilers were not always able to correctly determine the original meaning of the word. For example, the meanings of the word "impudent" in CAP are described as follows: "Insolent. 1. Sassy, daring. Insolent person. 2. * With regard to the winds: strong, stormy, impetuous, ”however, the second meaning can hardly be recognized as a metaphorical use of the first. The Trilingual Lexicon of the early 18th century correctly states that the original meaning of this adjective is ‘sudden’, with which its figurative meanings are associated.
Different meanings of one word, at the suggestion of Lepekhin, began to be denoted with the help of numbers, which then entered the practice of not only Russian, but also European lexicography. The interpretation of meanings was carried out with the help of etymological references, "estates", that is, synonyms, detailed definitions, or both; the meanings were also demonstrated using quotations from various texts and phrases invented by the compilers themselves.
For example: “THE ENEMY, ha. with. m. 1) Opponent, enemy; actually refers to people who in war openly do violence to each other. My enemies will reap, and I will comprehend. Psalm. XVII. 38. Overcome, defeat enemies. On the ditch, on the rampart run by enemies fortified. M. Lom. Often in this signification it is used in the singular as a collective name. The enemy is approaching, advancing. 2) In a broad signification, it means a person who hates another, or has an aversion to something; villain, hater; it simply says the enemy. If your enemy is hungry, satiate him. Prov. XXV. 22. Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you. Matt. V. 44. The enemy of lies, drunkenness. Do not let your enemies rejoice / With your unjust enmity. M. Lom.
The compilers of the Dictionary took into account various spheres of the use of words - poetry, eloquence ("florid style"), church and old books, science, technology, art, crafts, spoken language, regional dialects - in each of which the development of special figurative meanings takes place. For example:
“IRON. 1) The metal is of a gray color, not as heavy and viscous as copper, but much harder and more elastic than any other metal, highly malleable and malleable, from which all kinds of weapons, most of the handicraft tools, and many other things are made. 2) In an ornate style, and especially among the Poetics, it is taken instead of a sword, a spear, and in general for any weapon. It fell into our hands: we took out the iron: / Crimson jets flowed swiftly. Tragedy. Sinav. and Truv.
Describing the semantics of words, the compilers of the SAR drew attention to the fact that their semantic "deviations" often depend on their "conjugation" with other words, i.e., on their lexical compatibility. It is believed that this problem arose before linguistics when the general task of creating machine translation was solved, however, as we see, it was already the subject of consideration by philologists of the 18th century. For example:
"ALIVE. 1) Enjoying life, having life. 2) This name is given by excellence to God, to mean that there is no one else but God, who lives and exists without beginning and without end. 3) * Speaking of a person, it is opposed to a sluggish one. He is the liveliest child. 4) * In relation to things, it means: a) Speaking of vegetation: unharmed, whole, safe. In winter, flowers are kept alive behind glass. M. L. b) In Sl. tongue: leading to eternal bliss. Give birth to us in hope alive. 1. Peter. 1. 3. c) Explicit, obvious, real. You have a living example of imitation in the affairs of your parent. It is also said: Living mind. Living imagination. Fast, ardent, sharp mind; sharp, penetrating imagination, gifted with the ability to quickly and easily understand and decide. - Living expressions: i.e., filled with wit, ardor in the imagination; or words strong and depicting exactly what is offered.
Probably the most remarkable feature of the SAR was the nested arrangement of words according to the “word order”. “For the first time, this procedure was recognized by the Academy for the approval of the language as necessary; for through this root, power, different use in different cases, complexity, evasion or passage into a different meaning, poignancy, and allegoricalness of words and speeches dependent on them, are interpreted and explained in one place. This is probably what Karamzin had in mind when he said that the SAR introduced a "system of language."
Indeed, the alphabetical way of arranging words, with all its practical convenience, represents the dictionary of the language as a mechanical conglomerate of words that are not interconnected by anything, while the nested way reveals the systemic connections of words - etymological, derivational, semantic, stylistic, to a lesser extent - synonymous and antonymous, that is, introduces the reader, so to speak, into the interior of the language. So, under the word DOBA “time, time, occasion; also age”, such derivatives are given as: necessary, necessary, need, need, drug, befits, like, likeness, like, like, like, like, like and like, unmatched, unmatched, reverend, reverend, reverend, highly reverend , vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, vouchsafed, likened, likened, likened, likened, vouchsafed, rich, rich, comfortable, convenient, convenient, uncomfortable, convenient, comfortable, uncomfortable, as well as expressions: reverend father, highly reverend father.
Consideration of a word against the background of a nest of related words, a unit against the background of the whole belongs to the most valuable achievements of the SAR: it reveals to the reader such aspects of the word that go unnoticed in the alphabetical dictionary. Learning a language using such a dictionary should be an effective and exciting activity, since in the minds of students it will not be disparate facts that will “settle”, but systemic, meaningful connections and relationships, when one linguistic phenomenon will be explained through another.
