The extent of 1 degree of latitude. Degree network and its elements
The meridian of the earth's ellipsoid is an ellipse, the radius of curvature of which is determined by the value M latitude dependent. The arc length of any variable radius curve can be calculated using the well-known formula differential geometry, which in relation to the meridian has the expression
Here IN 1 And IN 2 latitudes for which the length of the meridian is determined. The integral is not taken in closed form in elementary functions. Only approximate methods of integration are possible for its calculation. When choosing the method of approximate integration, we pay attention to the fact that the value of the eccentricity of the meridian ellipse is small, so here it is possible to apply the method based on the expansion into a series in powers of a small value ( e /2 cos 2 B < 7*10 -3) биномиального выражения, стоящего под знаком интеграла. Число членов разложения будет зависеть от необходимой точности вычисления длины дуги меридиана, а также от разности широт ее конечных точек.
In geodetic practice, various cases may arise, more often it is necessary to perform calculations for small lengths (up to 60 km), but for special purposes it may be necessary to calculate arcs of long meridians: from the equator to the current point (up to 10,000 km), between the poles (up to 20,000 km). The required accuracy of calculations can reach a value of 0.001 m. Therefore, we will first consider the general case, when the difference in latitudes can reach 180 0, and the length of the arc is 20,000 km.
To expand a binomial expression into a series, we use a formula known from mathematics.
Hold Calculation Error m it is enough to determine the expansion terms here using the remainder term in the Lagrange form, which is not less in absolute value than the sum of all discarded terms of the expansion and is calculated by the formula
, (4. 27)
as the first of the discarded terms of the expansion, calculated at the maximum possible value of the quantity x.
In our case we have
Substituting the resulting expression into equation (4. 25), we obtain
, (4. 28)
which allows term-by-term integration with retention of the required number of expansion terms. Let us assume that the length of the meridian arc can reach a value of 10,000 km (from the equator to the pole), which corresponds to the difference in latitudes DB = p / 2, while it is required to calculate it with an accuracy of 0.001 m, which will correspond to a relative value of 10–10. The value of cosB will not exceed one in any case. If in the calculations we keep the third degrees of expansion, then the remainder term in the Lagrange form has the expression
As you can see, to achieve the required accuracy, such a number of expansion terms is not enough, it is necessary to keep four expansion terms and the residual term in the Lagrange form will have the expression
Therefore, when integrating, it is necessary to keep in this case four degrees of decomposition.
Term-by-term integration (4.28) is easy if you convert even powers to multiple arcs ( cos 2 nB in Cos(2nB)) using the well-known double argument cosine formula
; cos2 B = (1 + cos2B)/2,
successively applying which, we get
Acting in this way until cos 8 B, we obtain after simple transformations and integration
Here, the latitude difference is taken in radian measure and the following designations are used for coefficients that have constant values for an ellipsoid with given parameters.
;
.
It is useful to remember that the length of the meridian arc with a latitude difference of one degree is approximately 111 km, one minute - 1.8 km, one second - 0.031 km.
In geodetic practice, very often there is a need to calculate the meridian arc of small length (on the order of the length of the side of the triangulation triangle), in the conditions of Belarus this value will not exceed 30 km. In this case, there is no need to apply the cumbersome formula (4.29), but you can get a simpler one, but providing the same accuracy of calculations (up to 0.001 m).
Let the latitudes of the end points on the meridian be B1 And B2 respectively. For distances up to 30 km, this will correspond to the difference in latitude in radian measure, not more than 0. 27. Calculating the average latitude B m meridian arcs according to the formula B m = (B 1 + B 2) / 2, we take the arc of the meridian for the arc of a circle with a radius
(4. 30)
and its length is calculated by the formula for the length of the arc of a circle
, (4. 31)
where the difference in latitude is taken in radians.
The spherical shape of the Earth and the daily rotation determine the existence of two fixed points on the earth's surface - poles. An imaginary earth's axis passes through the poles, around which the earth rotates.
On maps and globes, the largest circle is drawn - the equator, the plane of which is perpendicular to the earth's axis. The equator divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres. The length of the arc 1° of the equator is 40075.7 km: 360° = 111.3 km.
Parallel to the plane of the equator, you can conditionally arrange a lot of planes. When they intersect with the surface of the globe, small circles are formed - parallels. They are held on a globe or map at a certain distance from the equator and are oriented from west to east. The length of the circles of parallels decreases uniformly from the equator to the poles. Recall that it is greatest at the equator and zero at the poles.
The globe can also be crossed by imaginary planes passing through the Earth's axis perpendicular to the plane of the equator. When these planes intersect with the surface of the Earth, large circles are formed - meridians. Meridians can be drawn through any point of the globe. All of them intersect at the points of the poles and are oriented from north to south. The average arc length of the 1st meridian is 40008.5 km: 360° = 111 km. The direction of the local meridian at any point can be determined at noon in the direction of the shadow from the gnomon or other object. In the northern hemisphere, the end of the shadow from the object shows the direction to the north, in the southern hemisphere - to the south.
To calculate distances on a map or globe, the following values can be used: the length of the arc is 1º of the meridian and 1º of the equator, which is approximately 111 km.
To determine the distance in kilometers on a map or globe between two points located on the same meridian, the number of degrees between the points is multiplied by 111 km. To determine the distance in kilometers between points lying on the same parallel, the number of degrees is multiplied by the length of an arc of 1 ° parallel, indicated on the map or determined from the tables.
The length of the arcs of parallels and meridians on the Krasovsky ellipsoid
|
Latitude in degrees |
Latitude in degrees |
The length of the parallel arc in 1° longitude, m |
Latitude in degrees |
The length of the parallel arc in 1° longitude, m |
|
For example, the distance between Kiev and St. Petersburg, located approximately on the 30° meridian, is 111 km *9.5° = 1054 km; the distance between Kiev and Kharkov (approximately 50° parallel) is 71 km * 6° = 426 km.
Parallels and meridians form degree network. The most accurate representation of the degree network can be obtained from the globe. On the geographical maps the arrangement of parallels and meridians depends on the map projection. To verify this, you can compare different maps, such as maps of hemispheres, continents, Russia, Russian regions, etc.
The position of any point on the globe is determined using geographic coordinates: latitude and longitude.
Geographic latitude- distance along the meridian in degrees from the equator to any point on the globe. The equator is taken as the origin of the latitude reference - the zero parallel. Latitude varies from 0° at the equator to 90° at the pole. Counting north of the equator northern latitude(n. lat.), south of the equator - southern (s. lat.). On the maps, the parallels are inscribed on the side frames, and on the globe - on the 0° and 180° meridians. For example, Kharkiv is located at 50° parallel north of the equator - its geographic latitude is 50° N. sh.; the Kermadec Islands pacific ocean 30° parallel south of the equator, their latitude is approximately 30° S. sh.
If on a map or globe a point is located between two designated parallels, then its geographical latitude is additionally determined by the distance between these parallels. For example, to calculate the latitude of Irkutsk, located on the map of Russia between 50° and 60° N. sh., through the point draw a straight line connecting both parallels. Then it is conventionally divided by 10 equal parts- degrees, since the distance between the parallels is 10 °. Irkutsk is closer to the 50° parallel.
In practice, latitude is determined by height polar star with the help of a sextant device, at school for this purpose they use a vertical goniometer, or an eclimeter.
Geographic longitude- distance along the parallel in degrees from the prime meridian to any point on the globe. The Greenwich meridian, zero, which passes near London (where the Greenwich Observatory is located), is taken as the origin of longitude. To the east of the zero meridian to 180 °, eastern longitude (east longitude) is counted, to the west - western (west longitude). On maps, meridians are inscribed on the equator or the upper and lower frames of the map, and on the globe - on the equator. Meridians, like parallels, pass through the same number of degrees. For example, St. Petersburg is located on the 30th meridian east of the prime meridian, its geographic longitude is 30°E. d.; Mexico City - 100 meridian west of the zero meridian, its longitude is 100 ° W. d.
If the point is located between two meridians, then its longitude is specified by the distance between them. For example, Irkutsk is located between 100° and 110° E. but closer to 100°. A line is drawn through the point connecting both meridians, it is conditionally divided by 10 ° and the number of degrees is counted from 100 ° of the meridian to Irkutsk. Therefore, the geographical longitude of Irkutsk is approximately 104°.
Geographic longitude in practice is determined by the difference in time between a given point and the zero meridian or other known meridian. Geographical coordinates are recorded in whole degrees and minutes with latitude and longitude. In this case, 1º \u003d 60 min (60 "), a0.1 ° \u003d 6", 0.2 ° \u003d 12 ", etc.
Literature.
- Geography / Ed. P.P. Vashchenko, E.I. Shipovich. - 2nd ed., revised and additional. - K .: Vishcha school. Head publishing house, 1986. - 503 p.
The spherical shape of the Earth and the daily rotation determine the existence of two fixed points on the earth's surface - poles. An imaginary earth's axis passes through the poles, around which the earth rotates.
On maps and globes, the largest circle is drawn - the equator, the plane of which is perpendicular to the earth's axis. The equator divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres. The length of the arc 1° of the equator is 40075.7 km: 360° = 111.3 km.
Parallel to the plane of the equator, you can conditionally arrange a lot of planes. When they intersect with the surface of the globe, small circles are formed - parallels. They are held on a globe or map at a certain distance from the equator and are oriented from west to east. The length of the circles of parallels decreases uniformly from the equator to the poles. Recall that it is greatest at the equator and zero at the poles.
The globe can also be crossed by imaginary planes passing through the Earth's axis perpendicular to the plane of the equator. When these planes intersect with the surface of the Earth, large circles are formed - meridians. Meridians can be drawn through any point of the globe. All of them intersect at the points of the poles and are oriented from north to south. The average arc length of the 1st meridian is 40008.5 km: 360° = 111 km. The direction of the local meridian at any point can be determined at noon in the direction of the shadow from the gnomon or other object. In the northern hemisphere, the end of the shadow from the object shows the direction to the north, in the southern hemisphere - to the south.
To calculate distances on a map or globe, the following values can be used: the length of the arc is 1º of the meridian and 1º of the equator, which is approximately 111 km.
To determine the distance in kilometers on a map or globe between two points located on the same meridian, the number of degrees between the points is multiplied by 111 km. To determine the distance in kilometers between points lying on the same parallel, the number of degrees is multiplied by the length of an arc of 1 ° parallel, indicated on the map or determined from the tables.
The length of the arcs of parallels and meridians on the Krasovsky ellipsoid
|
Latitude in degrees |
Latitude in degrees |
The length of the parallel arc in 1° longitude, m |
Latitude in degrees |
The length of the parallel arc in 1° longitude, m |
|
For example, the distance between Kiev and St. Petersburg, located approximately on the 30° meridian, is 111 km *9.5° = 1054 km; the distance between Kiev and Kharkov (approximately 50° parallel) is 71 km * 6° = 426 km.
Parallels and meridians form degree network. The most accurate representation of the degree network can be obtained from the globe. On geographical maps, the location of parallels and meridians depends on the map projection. To verify this, you can compare various maps, for example, maps of hemispheres, continents, Russia, Russian regions, etc.
The position of any point on the globe is determined using geographic coordinates: latitude and longitude.
Geographic latitude- distance along the meridian in degrees from the equator to any point on the globe. The equator is taken as the origin of the latitude reference - the zero parallel. Latitude varies from 0° at the equator to 90° at the pole. To the north of the equator, the northern latitude (north latitude) is counted, to the south of the equator - the southern latitude (south latitude). On the maps, the parallels are inscribed on the side frames, and on the globe - on the 0° and 180° meridians. For example, Kharkiv is located at 50° parallel north of the equator - its geographic latitude is 50° N. sh.; Kermadec Islands - in the Pacific Ocean at 30 ° south of the Equator, their latitude is approximately 30 ° S. sh.
If on a map or globe a point is located between two designated parallels, then its geographical latitude is additionally determined by the distance between these parallels. For example, to calculate the latitude of Irkutsk, located on the map of Russia between 50° and 60° N. sh., through the point draw a straight line connecting both parallels. Then it is conditionally divided into 10 equal parts - degrees, since the distance between the parallels is 10 °. Irkutsk is closer to the 50° parallel.
In practice, the geographic latitude is determined by the height of the North Star using a sextant device; at school, a vertical protractor, or eclimeter, is used for this purpose.
Geographic longitude- distance along the parallel in degrees from the prime meridian to any point on the globe. The Greenwich meridian, zero, which passes near London (where the Greenwich Observatory is located), is taken as the origin of longitude. To the east of the zero meridian to 180 °, eastern longitude (east longitude) is counted, to the west - western (west longitude). On maps, meridians are inscribed on the equator or the upper and lower frames of the map, and on the globe - on the equator. Meridians, like parallels, pass through the same number of degrees. For example, St. Petersburg is located on the 30th meridian east of the prime meridian, its geographic longitude is 30°E. d.; Mexico City - 100 meridian west of the zero meridian, its longitude is 100 ° W. d.
If the point is located between two meridians, then its longitude is specified by the distance between them. For example, Irkutsk is located between 100° and 110° E. but closer to 100°. A line is drawn through the point connecting both meridians, it is conditionally divided by 10 ° and the number of degrees is counted from 100 ° of the meridian to Irkutsk. Therefore, the geographical longitude of Irkutsk is approximately 104°.
Geographic longitude in practice is determined by the difference in time between a given point and the zero meridian or other known meridian. Geographical coordinates are recorded in whole degrees and minutes with latitude and longitude. In this case, 1º \u003d 60 min (60 "), a0.1 ° \u003d 6", 0.2 ° \u003d 12 ", etc.
Literature.
- Geography / Ed. P.P. Vashchenko, E.I. Shipovich. - 2nd ed., revised and additional. - K .: Vishcha school. Head publishing house, 1986. - 503 p.
The length of the arc of parallels and meridians, taking into account the polar compression of the Earth
To determine the distance on the tourist map, in kilometers between points, the number of degrees is multiplied by the arc length of 1 ° parallel and meridian (in longitude and latitude, in the geographic coordinate system), the exact calculated values of which are taken from the tables. Approximately, with a certain error, they can be calculated by the formula on the calculator.
Example from school lesson geography (according to the old textbook and from study guide for optional course)
Determine the particular scale of a small-scale (1:1,000,000, 1:6,000,000, 1:20,000,000 and smaller) maps of the earth's surface (atlas for class VI) in the region of Kazan and Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg, see the list of renamed cities). Both of these cities are located approximately at latitude 56°N.
The longitude of Kazan is 49°E, Yekaterinburg is 60°E.
The distance between them on the map is 1.1 cm (determined using a measuring compass and a ruler with millimeter divisions).
The length of the arc of a parallel in 1 ° for a latitude of 56 ° N is equal to 62394 meters.
60 - 49 = 11° (longitude difference).
L \u003d 62394 * 11 \u003d 686,334 meters \u003d 68,633,400 cm (distance between points in centimeters).
m = 1 / (68 633 400 / 1.1) ~ 1 / 62 400 000
Answer: private scale (m) - 1 cm 624 km.
The main scale (signed in the marginal
registration of this card) - 1 / 75,000,000 (1 cm 750 km).
Private m-b may be more or less than the main one, depending on the location of the selected area on the map.
An example of converting numerical values of geographical coordinates from tenths to degrees and minutes.
The approximate longitude of the city of Sverdlovsk is 60.8° (sixty point and eight tenths of a degree) east longitude.
8 / 10 = X / 60
X \u003d (8 * 60) / 10 \u003d 48 (from the proportion we find the numerator of the right fraction).
Result: 60.8° = 60° 48" (sixty degrees and forty-eight minutes).
To add a degree symbol (°) - press Alt + 248 (with numbers in the right numeric keypad of the keyboard; in a laptop - with the special Fn button pressed or by turning on NumLk)). This is done in Windows and Linux operating systems, and in Mac OS - using the Shift + Option + 8 keys
Latitude coordinates are always indicated before longitude coordinates (whether printed on a computer or written down on paper).
In the maps.google.ru service, supported formats are determined by the rules.
Examples of how it would be correct:
The full form of the angle (degrees, minutes, seconds with fractions):
41° 24" 12.1674", 2° 10" 26.508"
Abbreviated forms of writing an angle:
Degrees and minutes with decimals - 41 24.2028, 2 10.4418
Decimal degrees (DDD) - 41.40338, 2.17403
The Google map service has an online converter for converting coordinates and converting them to the desired format.
As a decimal separator of numerical values, on Internet sites and in computer programs, it is recommended to use a dot.
tables
The length of the parallel arc in 1°, 1" and 1" in longitude, meters
Latitude, degree |
The length of the parallel arc in 1° longitude, m |
Parallel arc length in 1", m |
Arc length par. in 1",m |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 111321 | 1855 | 31 |
| 1 | 111305 | 1855 | 31 |
| 2 | 111254 | 1854 | 31 |
| 3 | 111170 | 1853 | 31 |
| 4 | 111052 | 1851 | 31 |
| 5 | 110901 | 1848 | 31 |
| 6 | 110716 | 1845 | 31 |
| 7 | 110497 | 1842 | 31 |
| 8 | 110245 | 1837 | 31 |
| 9 | 109960 | 1833 | 31 |
| 10 | 109641 | 1827 | 30 |
| 11 | 109289 | 1821 | 30 |
| 12 | 108904 | 1815 | 30 |
| 13 | 108487 | 1808 | 30 |
| 14 | 108036 | 1801 | 30 |
| 15 | 107552 | 1793 | 30 |
| 16 | 107036 | 1784 | 30 |
| 17 | 106488 | 1775 | 30 |
| 18 | 105907 | 1765 | 29 |
| 19 | 105294 | 1755 | 29 |
| 20 | 104649 | 1744 | 29 |
| 21 | 103972 | 1733 | 29 |
| 22 | 103264 | 1721 | 29 |
| 23 | 102524 | 1709 | 28 |
| 24 | 101753 | 1696 | 28 |
| 25 | 100952 | 1683 | 28 |
| 26 | 100119 | 1669 | 28 |
| 27 | 99257 | 1654 | 28 |
| 28 | 98364 | 1639 | 27 |
| 29 | 97441 | 1624 | 27 |
| 30 | 96488 | 1608 | 27 |
| 31 | 95506 | 1592 | 27 |
| 32 | 94495 | 1575 | 26 |
| 33 | 93455 | 1558 | 26 |
| 34 | 92386 | 1540 | 26 |
| 35 | 91290 | 1522 | 25 |
| 36 | 90165 | 1503 | 25 |
| 37 | 89013 | 1484 | 25 |
| 38 | 87834 | 1464 | 24 |
| 39 | 86628 | 1444 | 24 |
| 40 | 85395 | 1423 | 24 |
| 41 | 84137 | 1402 | 23 |
| 42 | 82852 | 1381 | 23 |
| 43 | 81542 | 1359 | 23 |
| 44 | 80208 | 1337 | 22 |
| 45 | 78848 | 1314 | 22 |
| 46 | 77465 | 1291 | 22 |
| 47 | 76057 | 1268 | 21 |
| 48 | 74627 | 1244 | 21 |
| 49 | 73173 | 1220 | 20 |
| 50 | 71697 | 1195 | 20 |
| 51 | 70199 | 1170 | 19 |
| 52 | 68679 | 1145 | 19 |
| 53 | 67138 | 1119 | 19 |
| 54 | 65577 | 1093 | 18 |
| 55 | 63995 | 1067 | 18 |
| 56 | 62394 | 1040 | 17 |
| 57 | 60773 | 1013 | 17 |
| 58 | 59134 | 986 | 16 |
| 59 | 57476 | 958 | 16 |
| 60 | 55801 | 930 | 16 |
| 61 | 54108 | 902 | 15 |
| 62 | 52399 | 873 | 15 |
| 63 | 50674 | 845 | 14 |
| 64 | 48933 | 816 | 14 |
| 65 | 47176 | 786 | 13 |
| 66 | 45405 | 757 | 13 |
| 67 | 43621 | 727 | 12 |
| 68 | 41822 | 697 | 12 |
| 69 | 40011 | 667 | 11 |
| 70 | 38187 | 636 | 11 |
| 71 | 36352 | 606 | 10 |
| 72 | 34505 | 575 | 10 |
| 73 | 32647 | 544 | 9 |
| 74 | 30780 | 513 | 9 |
| 75 | 28902 | 482 | 8 |
| 76 | 27016 | 450 | 8 |
| 77 | 25122 | 419 | 7 |
| 78 | 23219 | 387 | 6 |
| 79 | 21310 | 355 | 6 |
| 80 | 19394 | 323 | 5 |
| 81 | 17472 | 291 | 5 |
| 82 | 15544 | 259 | 4 |
| 83 | 13612 | 227 | 4 |
| 84 | 11675 | 195 | 3 |
| 85 | 9735 | 162 | 3 |
| 86 | 7791 | 130 | 2 |
| 87 | 5846 | 97 | 2 |
| 88 | 3898 | 65 | 1 |
| 89 | 1949 | 32 | 1 |
| 90 | 0 |
A simplified formula for calculating the arcs of parallels (without taking into account distortions from polar compression):
l par \u003d l eq * cos (Latitude).
The length of the meridian arc in 1 °, 1 "and 1" in latitude, meters
Latitude, degree |
The length of the meridian arc in 1° latitude, m |
in 1", m |
1m |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 110579 | 1843 | 31 |
| 5 | 110596 | 1843 | 31 |
| 10 | 110629 | 1844 | 31 |
| 15 | 110676 | 1845 | 31 |
| 20 | 110739 | 1846 | 31 |
| 25 | 110814 | 1847 | 31 |
| 30 | 110898 | 1848 | 31 |
| 35 | 110989 | 1850 | 31 |
| 40 | 111085 | 1851 | 31 |
| 45 | 111182 | 1853 | 31 |
| 50 | 111278 | 1855 | 31 |
| 55 | 111370 | 1856 | 31 |
| 60 | 111455 | 1858 | 31 |
| 65 | 111531 | 1859 | 31 |
| 70 | 111594 | 1860 | 31 |
| 75 | 111643 | 1861 | 31 |
| 80 | 111677 | 1861 | 31 |
| 85 | 111694 | 1862 | 31 |
| 90 |
Picture. 1-second arcs of meridians and parallels (simplified formula).
Andreev N.V. Topography and Cartography: Optional course. M., Enlightenment, 1985
Mathematics textbook.
En.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_coordinates
Read more on the website website:
http://www.kakras.ru/mobile/book/dlina-dugi.html
Published: April 10, 2015
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For the work of the aircraft modeling circle of the pioneer camp, a bright room is needed - a workshop with an area of 40-45 m2 to accommodate 15-20 jobs. There is no single scheme for organizing a workshop; everything is determined by the capabilities of the pioneer camp. And they are not that big. Therefore, in practice, the workshop area usually does not exceed 30 m2. This, of course, makes things a little more difficult...
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Multiplication and division of numbers on the NL-10M is performed on scales of 1 and 2 or 14 and 15. When using these scales, the values of the numbers printed on them can be increased or decreased any number of times, a multiple of ten. To multiply numbers on scales 1 and 2, you need a rectangular index with a number. 10 or 100 of scale 2 is set to the multiplicand, and after breaking through the multiplier, count the desired product on scale 1.
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Of the five categories of aircraft models, the category of cord models can be recognized as the most common. Cord model - model aircraft, flying in a circle and controlled by means of non-stretchable threads or cables (cord). The pilot, who is on the ground, by acting on the controls of the model (elevators) through the cord, can make it fly horizontally or you ...
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We propose to make a simple cord model of an aircraft with an electric motor (Fig. 45). A wing is cut out of a piece of packaging foam 15 mm thick. If there is no such piece, it is glued from separate elements. An integral wing is necessarily lightened by cutting wide holes in both consoles and reinforced with ribs. At the outer end of the wing, a lead weight of 5 g is sealed, ...
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In flight, the drift angle can be determined in one of the following ways: 1) by the known wind (on NL-10M, NRK-2, wind jet and mental calculation); 2) according to the marks of the place of the aircraft on the map; 3) by radio bearings when flying from RNT or on RNT; 4) using a Doppler meter; 5) with the help of an onboard sight or aircraft radar; 6) visually (according to the visible run of sighting points).
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Air masses are constantly moving relative to the earth's surface in horizontal and vertical directions. The horizontal movement of air masses is called wind. Wind is characterized by speed and direction. They change over time, with a change in location and with a change in altitude. As altitude increases, in most cases wind speed increases and direction changes. On the...
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It is possible to correctly depict the surface of the Earth only on a globe, which is Earth in reduced form. But globes, despite this advantage, are inconvenient for practical use in aviation. On small globes it is impossible to place all the information necessary for piloting aircraft. Large globes are inconvenient to handle. Therefore, a detailed image of the earth's surface...
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These modes are designed to survey the earth's surface, periodically determine the position of the aircraft, determine the start of descent from flight level, and to perform an approach maneuver.
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When flying along the orthodrome, to control the path in the direction, orthodromic radio bearings are used, which can be counted according to VSH or obtained by calculations. When flying along the great circle from the radio station, the control of the path in the direction is carried out by comparing the OMPS with the OZMPU (Fig. 23.10).
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The Pioneer rocket model (Fig. 59) is equipped with an MRD 10-8-4 engine. The technology of its manufacture is slightly different from the previous one. The body is glued from thick paper in two layers on a mandrel with a diameter of 55 mm. Four stabilizers are cut out from a PS-4-40 foam plastic plate 5 mm thick, profiled and pasted over with writing paper. After drying, they are treated with sandpaper and PVA glue is fixed all ...
