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Basic concepts and terms. The concept, types and meaning of forensic markers

There are different points of view in the forensic literature not only regarding the concept of technical and forensic means, but also their classification.

ON THE. Selivanov by origin divides them into two groups: 1. Developed in relation to general technology and adapted to special, forensic tasks. 2. Created exclusively for solving forensic problems. Further N.A. Selivanov proposes to classify technical and forensic tools and methods according to their intended purpose into two types. The first type includes tools intended for investigators, operatives and forensic specialists and used to detect, seize and fix evidence, i.e. means for filming and video recording, sound recording, working with traces, etc., as well as for detecting and quickly solving crimes, searching for and detaining criminals, etc. He refers to the second type the means used in the study of material evidence and mainly in the production of forensic examinations (for example, goniometers, photometers, microscopes, etc.).

The point of view of N.A. Selivanova received recognition and was reflected in a number of forensic textbooks. R.S. Belkin proposed only to single out the so-called "field technical means" into an independent group.

A more detailed classification of technical and forensic means was proposed by E.P. Ishchenko. He classifies them into four groups and subdivides them on the following grounds: 1. By origin (a) specially created for forensic purposes and (b) borrowed; 2. By type (devices, equipment, tools, fixtures, accessories and materials, complete scientific and technical means); 3. According to the subject of application (a) an investigator, an expert, (b) a forensic specialist, (c) operatives in the production of operational measures; 4. According to the intended purpose (a) means of fixation, (b) means for fixing and removing traces, (c) means for expert research, (d) means of scientific organization of labor, (e) means of forensic accounting, (f) means used to prevent and capture criminal encroachments at the crime scene.

It seems that this classification is not entirely successful. This, in particular, concerns the division of technical and forensic means into devices, apparatus, equipment and tools, which is not very clear. After all, in essence there is no difference between instruments and equipment. A tool can also be called a device (for example, a measuring magnifier can be called both a device and a tool). The validity of the division of technical and forensic tools into tools intended for the investigator and the expert raises doubts, since the same tools can be used with equal success by both the investigator and the expert (photographic equipment, powders for detecting fingerprints, impression materials, etc.) .

Some authors object to the inclusion of technical and forensic means of scientific organization of labor - office equipment, communications equipment, cars, motorcycles and other vehicles, photo and video equipment installed at protected facilities.

To distinguish technical and forensic means from others technical means used in the fight against crime, it seems necessary to be guided by the following criteria: a) the intended purpose of technical means; b) for which category of subjects the use of this technical means is intended. These criteria make it easy to distinguish technical and forensic tools from other types of technology.

Thus, the intended purpose of technical and forensic means is to ensure maximum efficiency of investigative actions, forensic studies of physical evidence to establish all the circumstances of the event under investigation, identify the conditions that contributed to the commission of the crime and develop recommendations for preventing such crimes in the future.

According to the emergence of technical and forensic means are divided into three groups. The first one is created and used only in forensic practice, that is, forensic tools proper: various trace-copy films, iodine tubes, magnetic brushes, identikit images, bullet catchers, modern kits for fingerprinting, working with micro-objects, express analysis of potent, narcotic substances, etc. The second - means borrowed from other areas of science and technology and adapted to solve forensic problems. These are microscopes, metal detectors, flashlights with special attachments, specialized cameras. The third is the means borrowed from the general technique and used without changes. This includes video, general purpose photographic equipment, silicone pastes, sound recording equipment, projection devices, personal computers, etc.

When grouping by type, one should distinguish between instruments, apparatus and equipment, tools and fixtures, accessories and materials, as well as sets of technical and forensic tools. The last concept needs further clarification. This refers to sets, usually consisting of funds from four adjacent groups. Completion of forensic tools, as a rule, is carried out by creating sets of a universal type: an investigative suitcase, an operational bag. These are compact and relatively light kits that include technical and forensic tools for several functional purposes: photographic equipment, accessories for drawing a plan of the scene, powders and chemicals for working with traces, and various auxiliary technical substances.

The content of such kits is oriented to the use by an investigator or an operative worker during an inspection of the scene of an incident, a search or other investigative action. Specialized kits are being created that are designed for use by a specific specialist or focused on certain types of crimes: an expert suitcase, a set for working with micro-objects, a suitcase for a forensic prosecutor, sets for traffic police officers, etc. These kits include technical tools that allow for express analysis of traces, documents, substances, materials.

A special kind of set of technical and forensic tools - mobile forensic laboratories to work at the scene and preliminary study of traces and material evidence found there. Mobile forensic laboratory cars were also developed and began to be used in the investigation of crashes and accidents in railway transport.

If we analyze what scientific and technical means are studied by forensic technology as a branch of the science of forensic science, then they can be divided into 4 groups: natural sciences. At the same time, the methods of their use do not differ from the methods of using technical means in other areas of human activity (for example, scales, a microscope, a caliper, a video camera, etc.); 2. Scientific and technical means adopted from various technical and natural sciences, but used according to special forensic techniques. The specifics of the tasks of forensic science, the features of objects and the conditions for their study led to the need to develop special forensic methods for their use (for example, special methods for studying them with the help of a comparative microscope MC-51 have been developed to study fired bullets); 3. Devices, tools and other technical means that are used in various branches of science and technology, but for solving the problems facing forensic science, have undergone certain modifications (for example, metal detectors, specialized cameras, flashlights with special nozzles, etc.); 4. Devices, tools and devices specially designed for forensic purposes (for example, the RF-1 apparatus for photographic scanning of bullets, the optical overlay device - PON-1, MSK-2, etc.).

Despite the fact that the possibility of using all these groups of scientific and technical means in the fight against crime is studied by forensic technology, there is no reason to attribute all these means to it. Actually forensic should be considered those technical means that are structurally adapted to solve a particular forensic problem. So, a car delivering an investigator or an operative to the scene, a first-aid kit, a biomicroscope used to examine material evidence are not forensic tools. On the other hand, a mobile forensic laboratory, an investigative suitcase, etc., which are structurally adapted to solve the problems of disclosing, investigating or preventing crimes, therefore become forensic means.

The classification of technical and forensic means according to their purpose seems to be very significant (Fig. 1 in Appendix 1).

According to the intended purpose Chernyshov V.N., Sysoev E.V., Seleznev A.V., Terekhov A.V. technical and forensic means are classified as follows:

1. Means of fixation. These are photographic equipment, filming equipment, film projectors, tape recorders, video equipment used to capture the situation at the scene of an investigative action (the scene of an incident, search, investigative experiment, examination, verification and clarification of testimony on the spot, etc.), as well as various traces and objects, relevant to the business.

2. Means of detecting invisible and little visible traces and other objects. These include magnifiers, including special forensic magnifiers with illumination, various powders, both ordinary (aluminum, graphite, soot, zinc oxide, etc.), and on a magnetic basis (iron reduced by hydrogen, ruby, sapphire, agate), sets of tools to detect fingerprints with iodine vapor, reagents of ninhydrin and silver nitrate. This group also includes devices and tools for detecting and removing micro-objects (micro-vacuum cleaners, micro-tweezers, sticky films, etc.). These authors also included here the means for removing odor traces (odorological suitcases).

3. Search tools for detecting various objects that may be material evidence (mine detectors such as IMP and UMIF, Gamma, Iris, magnetic lift, trawls, probes, ultraviolet illuminators, electron-optical converters, etc.).

So, in the murder case, the investigator received information that the corpse was buried in the garden of the suspect. The location was indicated quite accurately. Excavations were carried out with the help of shovels for almost the entire daylight hours, however, did not yield any results. The investigator decided to continue work the next day. However, when he arrived at the plot in the morning, he discovered a trench of considerable depth. As it turned out, an excavator was working on this site late in the evening. The main reason for the failure of the investigator was the failure to use technical means, and not elementary ones, but search instruments and devices that make it possible to detect deep burials, for example, metal probes of various designs and equipment (Georadar "Oko" or others).

4. Means of fixing (copying) and removing traces (hands, feet, teeth, hacking tools, vehicles). The most common among these tools are: gypsum (for making casts of footprints, car treads and other large objects), silicone pastes for fixing small traces (hacking tools, small areas of shoe marks), plasticine (for taking casts of burglary marks) , varnishes in aerosol version for fixing traces on loose surfaces, such as sand.

5. Means for obtaining fingerprints from living persons and corpses: printing ink, fingerprint pad, board, rubber rollers and special plates for rolling paint, fingerprint film, fingerprint cards.

6. Means for making composite portraits. This is the IKR-2 device and computer system compiling compositional portraits "Kadr", which is now widely introduced into practice.

7. Means-markers. These tools are often called chemical traps, because they leave hard-to-remove and well-marked traces of their effects on the offender. Technical and forensic markers include various dyes, mechanical and pyrotechnic devices for spraying them, as well as ointments installed on objects with material values subject to the most frequent criminal attacks. They are installed ahead of time.

8. Universal means: unified suitcases and mobile forensic laboratories for use in the inspection of the scene and in the performance of other investigative actions.

9. Means for systematization and issuance of forensic information. These are various file cabinets and collections (traces of hands, shoes, vehicles, hacking, counterfeit money and documents, and a number of others), as well as electronic computers used for their maintenance, if their use is justified.

10. Means for laboratory research of physical evidence. They are very varied. These include, for example, microscopes, comparative forensic, macro-reproductive installations (RTOs), universal laboratory reproduction installations (ULARUS), the "Speed" installation for firing firearms, the "Trasograph" devices - for obtaining experimental traces of hacking tools, optical overlay devices "PON" - for the study of banknotes, prints of seals and stamps, devices "Regula" - for the study of money and documents.

Above are just some of the technical and forensic means. There are many more of them in service with law enforcement agencies.

Forensic means and methods by origin G.I. Gramovich divides into four groups and proposes to classify scientific and technical means, depending on the functions performed with their help, into the following groups: for detecting traces and other objects; for fixation; for withdrawal; for examining evidence; to prevent crime; to organize the fight against crime. This classification corresponds to modern ideas.

By developing or borrowing technical means, criminologists seek to solve several problems with their help. Such a tendency towards universality is quite justified, as a result of which it is not always possible to accurately attribute this or that device or device to a certain classification subgroup. The criterion here should be the function for which a particular tool is intended, therefore, the classification of technical and forensic tools according to their intended purpose, disclosed in Chapter 2 of this work, has the greatest practical value.

The main directions for improving the means of forensic technology under the influence scientific and technological progress are:

1) the use of fundamentally new materials and the improvement of the properties of traditional ones; gradual transition from passive selection essential substances to the active design and creation of materials with optimal properties. This can be illustrated by the example of the transition from traditional impression masses to artificially created polymer compounds that ensure the accuracy of copying the smallest details of the relief. Characteristic in this regard is the replacement of simple powders for detecting fingerprints with new substances and their mixtures that have a set of specified properties: the ability to fluoresce or luminesce, better adhesion with sweat and fat secretions, magnetic properties and etc.;

2) the use of new sources of energy, processes, forms of motion of matter. In investigative practice, color photography and video recording, digital photography and holography are increasingly being used; biological, physico-chemical, electronic processes; thermal imagers, introscopes, etc.;

3) a sharp improvement in the parameters of the operation of technical systems and devices, which is evident in the example of the introduction of more sensitive photographic and video films that make it possible to shoot in low light conditions with sufficient depth of field; devices that allow observing and fixing criminal objects in complete darkness; computers multiplying the amount of processed forensic information, etc.;

4) a qualitative change in the elements and structure of technical systems used in forensic practice, the complication of the design and elemental composition of technical means. Nodes have been introduced into many forensic devices increased complexity: converters, indicators, scoreboards, etc., as well as circuits that perform logical functions. On the basis of computers, branched networks have been created and are being operated, solving complexes of various forensic tasks;

5) a fundamental change in the functions of forensic technology.

If earlier various technical means only made it easier for the investigator to perform any mechanical work, then with the advent of high-speed personal computers, the planning of the investigation, including network planning, the promotion of investigative versions, the preparation of procedural documents, especially the final ones related to the analysis of the obtained evidence, are being improved, that is intellectual, logical, heuristic tasks are solved.

It is impossible to refer to technical and forensic means of communication. The intended purpose of these funds is the transfer of information. They are used in various fields human activity and the fact that they are used for negotiations between members of the investigative team does not yet give grounds for attributing them to forensic technology. It is also impossible to agree with the classification of cars, helicopters, and other vehicles as technical and forensic means, with the exception of specially equipped mobile forensic laboratories. From the fact that investigators or investigators use them to travel to the place of investigative actions, transport material evidence, or other objects related to the cases under investigation, they do not change their purpose as vehicles and do not become a forensic tool.

As for computers, those of them that are used in automated methods for investigating certain types of crimes, compiling composite portraits of wanted persons, maintaining forensic records, and for other purely forensic purposes, they can indeed be considered forensic tools. The opinions of those scientists who consider computers as a forensic tool even in those cases when they are used to analyze statistical data or control lower prosecutor's offices and for some other purposes, is questionable. as office equipment not directly related to the detection and investigation of crimes.

So, the classification of technical and forensic means gives a visual representation of the structure of the types of means of forensic technology. The classification of technical and forensic means can be carried out on various grounds. The most reasonable is the classification, which is based on the appointment of these funds. On this basis, the following groups can be distinguished: 1. Forensic search tools; 2. Forensic means of fixation and seizure; 3. Fingerprinting means; 4. Means and methods for the preliminary study of forensic objects; 5. Means for making composite portraits; 6. Forensic tools - markers; 7. Universal (complete) forensic tools; 8. Funds for conducting forensic records; 9. Means for laboratory research of forensic objects. This classification of technical and forensic means gives a clear idea of the equipment in service with law enforcement agencies and greatly facilitates its study. The proposed classification of technical and forensic tools used in detecting, investigating and preventing crimes will help to tactically correctly conduct investigative actions using the most appropriate methods, depending on the objective and subjective factors operating in this case.

Introduction 3
Introduction

The problem of petty theft has existed since time immemorial and, probably, will exist for quite a long time, since the principle "someone else's is always better" is more or less inherent in every person. And, given the modern polarization of society, when the well-being of some is much higher than that of others, kleptomaniac manifestations have increased significantly. And although the technical means of security, surveillance and signaling have enormous capabilities, they cannot protect your wallet from encroachment by an employee sitting next to you. However, the problem of petty theft of personal and public property exists, and if there is a problem, then there must be methods for solving it. An important role in the fight against crime is played by forensic tools and methods. They make it possible to detect and remove invisible and barely visible traces, obtain investigative and evidentiary information, facilitate the search for hiding places, provide a high degree of documentary fixation of the situation in which the investigative action is carried out, and increase the productivity of the investigator. IN Lately a number of fundamentally new technical means appeared - devices for preliminary examination of material evidence in the course of investigative actions. Devices appeared for working at the site of an explosion, fire, traffic accidents, for differential search of non-ferrous and ferrous metals, for detecting counterfeit money and foreign currency, for detecting and removing dust particles left by shoes on carpet products, for removing odor traces. The fleet of instruments based on the use of invisible rays (ultraviolet, infrared, X-ray) has been almost completely renewed. Stereo installations for photographing incident sites and automated drawing of plans began to be produced. A lot of other equipment is coming to the field. However, the changes that have taken place in the technical and forensic equipment of law enforcement agencies do not find proper coverage in the literature.

An important role in the fight against crime is played by forensic tools and methods. They make it possible to detect and remove invisible and barely visible traces, obtain investigative and evidentiary information, facilitate the search for hiding places, provide a high degree of documentary fixation of the situation in which the investigative action is carried out, and increase the productivity of the investigator. Recently, a number of fundamentally new technical means have appeared - devices for preliminary examination of material evidence in the course of investigative actions.

However, chemical traps have not yet received wide distribution in practice, despite a wide range of potentially interested persons who are ready to use the mentioned means. Due to the inadequacy of the legal framework governing the circulation of chemical safety products, consumers often cannot find answers to the following questions: what are chemical traps and what are their varieties; whether their production is legal in the country; where can such traps be placed; Does the use of such means violate human rights?

1. Legal regulation

Investigators do not use forensic markers on their own, but they often encounter them when investigating thefts from retail outlets, warehouses, pharmacies, change houses at enterprises, office desks in institutions, as well as bribery.

The use of forensic markers is provided for by the law "On the Police" (clause 9, article 11), where they are referred to as "special coloring agents." 1 To date, the only legal document that regulates in detail issues related to chemical traps is an instruction on the procedure for using chemical traps in detecting theft of property owned by state, municipal, private property and the property of public associations (organizations), approved by the Order Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation of September 11, 1993 No. 423, put into effect on October 15, 1993. At the same time, this Instruction is a guide for law enforcement officers rather than for potential consumers. Therefore, when interpreting its provisions, it must be taken into account that they are not norms of direct action. 2

Thus, the Federal Law “On Licensing Certain Types of Activities” dated August 08, 2002 No. 128-FZ only lists the production of pyrotechnic products as an activity associated with the manufacture of chemical traps, for which a license is required. Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 179 dated February 22, 1992 (as amended on December 30, 2000) approved a list of types of products (works, services) and production waste, the free sale of which is prohibited. Works on the manufacture of chemical traps and services for their installation are not included in this list. Their circulation is not prohibited and federal law"On operational-search activity" dated August 12, 1995 No. 144-FZ (as amended on June 30, 2003). Neither the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation nor the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation directly provides for liability for "handicraft" production and distribution of chemical traps. The Instruction on the procedure for using chemical traps also does not say that the tasks of law enforcement agencies include identifying objects blocked in violation of the rules established by the Instruction and seizing "counterfeit" traps.

In any case, if any bureaucratic difficulties arise at the stage of initiating a case related to the “unauthorized” installation of traps and their “inconsistent” use, it must be remembered that a criminal case or an administrative offense case is initiated upon the commission of an unlawful act or misdemeanor, and not on the fact of triggering a trap. 3

However, the non-compliance of traps with the quality criteria declared by the manufacturer or that were agreed in advance with the customer may entail consequences for their manufacturer (distributor) in the form of liability, including for failure to fulfill obligations and violation of consumer rights. The responsibility of these persons may also arise in the following cases:

if the trap worked at the wrong moment and it was not an attacker at all in the spray zone of the substance;
if the action of the trap caused harm to health.

The problem of harm to the rights and interests of the individual is important in the use of chemical traps. If we do not take into account the cases when, through a poor-quality chemical trap, damage is caused to the physical condition of a person, but consider violations of other personal non-property rights, then the answer to this question lies in the mode of action of the coloring matter contained in chemical traps. For the most part, the principle of action is simple: getting on the skin of an attacker, the substance is not washed off for several days. Therefore, if a damaged (triggered) trap is detected at the place of the theft, and at the same time, it is obvious that a dye has been released, then the suspicion of committing theft can easily fall on any employee who did not go to work after the incident. In practice, there are cases when law enforcement officers visited “ask a couple of questions” about the recent theft in the organization to people who did not go to work, allegedly due to indisposition, and found them with traces of chemical traps on their faces or hands. 4

The main purpose of forensic markers is to form on the offender at the moment of committing a crime, difficult to wash off, clearly visible to the surrounding traces, facilitating his search in hot pursuit and subsequent exposure. 5 The development and use of forensic markers turns random luck into a pattern, since drugs of forensic markers, when they hit a person’s body and clothes, paint them in bright colors that are easily evident to citizens, which helps to detain a criminal. The dyes used in the trace-forming agents are quite stable. They can be washed off only with the use of effective detergents, however, even after removing the colored stains, the dye particles remain for a long time under the nails, in the folds of the skin and are easily detected in ultraviolet rays, under which they luminesce. With regard to clothing, the drug that has got on it can only be completely removed by dry cleaning. During the time until the criminal washes away the dye that has fallen on him, he meets with colleagues, sellers, catering workers and other citizens who inevitably pay attention to the painted parts of the body, clothes, which greatly facilitates the establishment of his identity. In regions where the use of trace-forming agents is well established, they contribute to the disclosure of up to 25% of various thefts. Forensic markers contribute not only to disclosure, but also to the prevention of theft. After all, a large number of persons from among the criminal element become aware of their use.

Forensic markers are subject to the following requirements:

They should not be dangerous to human life and health.
The design of forensic markers must constantly change. When using the same designs of forensic markers, criminals will quickly learn to recognize them and will not touch them when committing thefts. Using different types of markers avoids this.
Forensic markers must be reliable in operation, designed for long-term use in various climatic zones.
Forensic markers in a constructive sense should be simple, designed for the use of improvised materials and unskilled labor for their manufacture (cadets of police schools, etc.). In the factory, only ejection devices are manufactured - squibs, mechanical devices, basic mixtures of colorants. They are the basis for any design developed directly in the field. This provides a huge variety of forensic markers that do not allow criminals to recognize them when committing crimes.
Forensic markers should be cheap. This requirement is put forward in connection with what is blocked by these means. great amount objects and if they are expensive, then significant funds will be required for their manufacture.

Practice has developed the following procedure for the use of trace-forming means. Employees of the criminal investigation department determine the type of objects to be blocked by these means and their number. In accordance with this, together with the employees of the forensic departments, the design of forensic markers is being developed, and their production is being organized. The composition of the dye is determined by a specialist chemist on the basis of the supplied base mixtures in relation to a separate territorial zone. The latter is important, since when a suspect is detained, the area where the crime was committed can be determined by the substance found on him. 6

The fact of establishing forensic markers at the facility is documented by an act of the established form, drawn up by a criminal investigation officer or a district inspector. It indicates the name of the blocked object, the position and surname of the police officer who installed the forensic marker. Surname, name, patronymic of the financially responsible person, appearance forensic marker and the “predatory substance” used in it (without its exact name). The financially responsible person is instructed in detail about the rules for handling the forensic marker and is warned about non-disclosure of the fact of its installation. A package with a sample of the dye is attached to the act in a sealed form. A list of all objects blocked by these means is stored in the duty department of the internal affairs body and is used to inform the investigative team that goes to the scene upon receipt of a message about the theft. The fact of operation of the forensic marker is reflected in the protocol of the inspection of the scene and urgent information is given on the radio to operational squads to search for the criminal in hot pursuit. A sample of the dye is attached to the protocol if, as a result of the operation of the forensic marker, it partially woke up.

Often there are facts when a forensic marker (often passive) is taken away by criminals. In such cases, the investigator in the inspection protocol indicates that, according to the financially responsible person participating in the inspection, there was a forensic marker in such and such place on the eve of the theft, which was not found at the time of the inspection. More details about this are recorded in the protocol of the interrogation of this person. The act of blocking the object with a forensic marker and a sample of the dye attached to it will be requested from the police department and attached to the criminal case.

If a suspect is identified, an immediate examination and examination of his clothes, a personal search, a search at the place of residence and work are carried out. In all cases, an ultraviolet illuminator is used. If a substance that could be formed by a forensic marker substance is found on the body, it is removed with a gauze swab, and clothes with traces of such a substance are packed and sent for physical and chemical examination.

It is advisable to entrust the production of an examination to the forensic department of the local Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Department of Internal Affairs, since the experts of this department are well aware of the methodology for examining substances used in forensic markers. Before the examination, two questions are usually posed: 1) what is the composition of the substance that formed the stain on the clothes or body of the suspect and 2) whether it matches the composition of the substance of the forensic marker installed on the object from which the theft was committed. For a comparative study, a sample of the substance attached to the act of blocking the object with a forensic marker is sent for examination along with clothing (tampon). 7

2. Types of markers

Probably, there is no enterprise where there would be no internal security problems - from petty theft to a major information leak. And sometimes it is quite difficult to detect an intruder. Chemical traps will help to cope with this task.

The peak of popularity of chemical traps in Russia fell on the 50-60s of the XX century. In the era of a total struggle against all kinds of theft, they were placed literally everywhere: in stores, production workshops, and warehouses. This forced dishonest citizens to be constantly on their guard, which, in turn, led to a decrease in the effectiveness of traps and, as a result, to a decrease in their mass use. In addition, many employees of enterprises were not at all interested in detecting the intruder, since they hid their own theft behind his “exploits”. Often, the traps were put out of action by the sellers themselves or other financially responsible persons. Today, in the era of private enterprises, chemical traps have begun to gain popularity again: the production of old models is being restored, new ones are being developed and created.

Criminalistics is a science that studies criminal activity, summarizes the experience of fighting crime, develops technical means, tactics and methods for detecting, investigating and preventing crimes. Theoretical provisions, means, techniques and methods of forensic science, implemented by forensic science, form its system as a legal science and academic discipline.

The subject of criminalistics is a group of patterns that manifest themselves in the commission of crimes, in the course of their investigation, the results of the study of which serve as the basis for the development of tools, techniques and methods that optimize the fight against crime.

Investigation of crimes is a complex and multifaceted process of learning about an event that took place in the past. It is especially difficult today, in the context of the rapid growth of crime, the cynical attitude of criminals to law-abiding citizens, and sometimes to law enforcement officers, when witnesses and victims "physically disappear", and criminal cases due to the absence of witnesses, due to their absence from the court falls apart, ending with the acquittal of the guilty. Under such conditions, it is necessary to actively apply scientific methods fight against crime.

Crime is a complex, multifaceted social phenomenon studied by a number of sciences. Among them, a special place is occupied by forensic science, the object of study of which is the functional side of crime, the system of actions and relationships that form the method, mechanism of crime and its trace reflection. Of the phenomena studied by forensic science, first of all, it is necessary to name the regularities of the mechanism for committing crimes.

The mechanism of the crime is complex dynamic system criminalistics, including the criminal himself, his motive, attitude to his actions and their consequences; the subject of a criminal offense; the way the crime was committed and concealed, its circumstances, as well as opposition to the investigation and other components. The mechanism of the crime is formed and functions, obeying certain patterns, which determine the process of formation of traces. Among the regularities studied by forensic science are:

1) patterns of choice and implementation of the method of preparing, committing and concealing a crime, as well as counteracting its detection and investigation, establishing the truth in a criminal case;

2) patterns of establishing relationships between the elements of the crime event and their development;

3) patterns of occurrence and development of phenomena associated with a crime, before, during and after its commission;

4) patterns of collection, evaluation, research and use of evidence.

Any crime is committed in real conditions, reflected in the environment. The elements of its method, mechanism are interconnected and, reflected in the material-fixed social environment, leave a variety of traces (material, ideal, virtual) containing information about the crime and its participants. Personal and material sources serve as sources of information that is important for establishing the circumstances of the deed.

The provisions of the theories of reflection and cognition allow forensic scientists to identify additional patterns of trace formation. The main reflected objects are the subject of the crime, as well as his criminal activity. The offender is reflected outside through the properties that characterize his individual qualities, and through the system of means and methods of action (inaction). Therefore, numerous traces remain at the scene of the incident or near it.

Obtaining information from personal sources is carried out verbally during procedural and non-procedural actions. Obtaining information from material sources occurs in the course of the actions of the interrogating officer, investigator, expert, specialist, during which the objects of the material world are studied, causally related to the criminal event under investigation.

At the end of the pre-trial investigation, the next stage begins - a judicial study of the materials of the criminal case. Therefore, in order to use information about a crime and its participants in criminal proceedings, it is necessary to collect, evaluate, investigate, use evidence obtained during the preliminary investigation (Articles 73-90) and trial (Articles 273-291 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation). For only after a fair verdict can be considered that the goal of criminology in the fight against crime has been achieved.

The processes of collecting, researching, evaluating and using evidence also follow certain patterns. These are, in particular, the patterns of working with evidence, which constitute another element of the subject of forensic science. It follows from this that if the crime under investigation is recognized by the patterns of formation of its traces in the surrounding world, then the quality of disclosure and investigation of a criminal act is determined by the patterns of activity of the subjects of criminal proceedings, which are reflected in the protocols of investigative, judicial actions and on other material media.

The knowledge of these regularities is necessary for forensic science to perform its main service function - the development of new tools and further improvement of techniques and methods for combating crime.

Based on the foregoing, the following definition can be formulated: forensic science is the science of the patterns of the crime mechanism, the emergence of information about it and its participants, the patterns of collecting, researching and using this forensically significant information and the means, techniques and methods of investigating and preventing crimes based on the knowledge of these patterns.

The object of the science of criminology is criminal activity and activities to detect, investigate and prevent crimes in all the variety of their constituent processes, relationships, properties and characteristics. By studying the totality of these objects from its own point of view, forensic science recognizes the above relationship of regularities.

The knowledge of a specific group of regularities of objective reality by forensic science is necessary to solve its goal: to contribute by its means and methods to the fight against crime. The forms and methods of this struggle are the subject of research in a number of sciences. Specific forensic tasks, how:

a) knowledge of the patterns of reality that make up the subject of science, the development of its general and particular theories as the basis for the formation of forensic tools, techniques and methods;

b) development of new and improvement of used technical and forensic means, tactics and guidelines on collecting, researching, evaluating and using evidence;

c) optimization of the organizational, tactical and methodological foundations of the preliminary investigation of crimes and trial, organizational and methodological principles of forensic examination;

d) development and improvement of forensic methods and means of crime prevention;

e) studying foreign experience in the development and application of forensic tools and methods, determining ways to introduce them into domestic practice in the fight against crime.

The special tasks of forensic science are implemented by solving specific problems that arise at each stage of its development, for example, the development of methods for investigating new types of crimes (in the field of high technology, in the field of economic activity committed by organized criminal groups, etc.). Specific tasks in their scope can relate both to the theory of science and to its product - those methods, techniques and tools that forensic science develops for the needs of the practice of combating crime.

Forensic technology is a system of theoretical provisions and principles for the development and application of scientific and technical means and methods for detecting, fixing, seizing, accumulating and processing materialized information about an event under investigation, as well as technical means and methods for preventing a crime.

The main purpose of forensic technology is to detect and study information about the crime committed, contained in the properties of the material environment of the event under investigation.

Forensic technology is the simplest level of forensic knowledge and accumulates a natural-technical aspect specific to forensic science.

Its subject as part of forensic science is the study of the mechanisms of material interactions that take place during criminal activity. different types, on material traces-consequences and the development of means and methods for their identification and study during the investigation based on the information contained in the traces.

The main task of forensic technology is to detect and study the material traces of a crime in order to obtain information about the identity of the offender, the objects used by him, the conditions for their use and other circumstances of the crime committed.

The main task of forensic technology is to develop means and methods for detecting, fixing, storing and investigating information about the event under investigation, contained in the relevant sources (objects and traces) and having the form of one or another signal - a physical process of one nature or another: mechanical, light, sound, electrical and other impulses. Accordingly, the patterns that control the mechanisms of trace formation, the means and methods for extracting and decoding the information contained in traces, fixing it, methods for comparing it in order to identify trace-forming objects and methods for evaluating and forming conclusions based on the results of the study are disclosed. In this case, all types of the mechanism of trace formation and traces (traces of a person, animals, tools, tools, weapons, vehicles and other material objects) are considered.

In the system of investigative activities, technical methods are inextricably linked with tactical ones, since they are used in the structure of investigative actions in order to detect and investigate a crime.

According to the degree of complexity, separate technical methods of working with material evidence and their systems-methods are distinguished, aimed at resolving relatively independent typical tasks of studying material evidence.

The methods of forensic technology can be systematized according to the nature of the phenomena underlying them and the belonging of the basic and maternal sciences. Accordingly, they distinguish: a) physical (among them, various optical methods occupy a particularly significant place); b) chemical, for example methods qualitative analysis; c) physico-chemical, for example, gas chromatography; d) botanical, for example, spore-pollen analysis; e) physiological, for example, electromyography; f) mathematical, for example, probabilistic-statistical methods, etc.

Currently, the following main branches of forensic technology have been formed in forensic science:

1) forensic examination of photo, video and sound recordings;

2) forensic investigation, the basis of which is forensic tracing;

3) forensic research of weapons, explosive devices, explosives and traces of their use, the basis of which is forensic ballistics;

4) forensic investigation of materials, substances and products;

5) forensic examination of documents (handwriting, author's, technical and forensic, linguistic);

6) research of computer information;

7) forensic identification of a person on the basis of appearance (gabitoscopy);

8) forensic phonoscopy (study of sounds, including human speech);

9) information and reference support of the investigation (forensic registration).

Forensic tactics is a section of forensic science that represents a system of theoretical provisions and practical recommendations for organizing and planning an investigation and determining the optimal line of conduct for persons conducting an investigation, taking into account their relationship and interaction with other participants in the investigation based on the norms and principles of the criminal process.

"Tactics" - the line of optimal behavior of the investigator in the current investigative situation. Tactics always involves the setting and achievement of a specific goal through a certain kind of actions of the investigator, which are formalized scientifically in the form of a tactical technique, tactical recommendation, tactical combination, tactical operation. In forensic science, the term "tactics" is used to refer to that part of science that studies the essence and art of organizing investigative activities.

The subject of forensic tactics are information-cognitive and mainly behavioral-tactical aspects of criminal activity and activities for its investigation. At the same time, these aspects of criminal activity act as an object of knowledge and prevention, and forensic - as an object of knowledge and optimization. Tactics is largely based on the doctrine of the version and provisions on the planning of activities to investigate crimes.

The emergence of forensic tactics as a special area of forensic knowledge occurred in late XIX- the beginning of the XX century. One of the first to use the term "tactics" in relation to the work of persons investigating crimes was the German scientist A. Weingard. In the preface to his book Criminal Tactics, he wrote: “The purpose of this book is to provide guidance for the preparation of plans (investigations) and their implementation. She means to give the forensic scientist what strategy and tactics give the military. That's why I called it "criminal tactics".

At the beginning of the 20th century, forensic tactics included only knowledge of the basics of organizing the investigation of crimes and recommendations for carrying out certain investigative actions (starting with an inspection of the scene). Gradually, in the works devoted to forensic (in the former wording "criminal" - S.N. Tregubov, and later - "investigative" - A.N. Vasiliev) tactics, the peculiarities of organizing the investigation of certain types of crimes began to be considered.

Since the mid 20s. until the second half of the 1950s. 20th century Forensic tactics was considered as part of forensic science, studying certain aspects of the organization of investigative activities and at the same time being the general provisions of private methods for investigating crimes.

Since the 60s. within the final section of the science of criminology - the forensic methodology for investigating certain types of crimes - arose its own theoretical part - general provisions. As a result, forensic tactics has become a section that studies only the elements of investigative activity, and the problems of organizing the investigation of certain types of crimes and their general theory moved to the final section of forensic science - forensic investigation methodology

The main task of forensic tactics is the most effective organization of forensic activities in accordance with the objectives of investigative actions, operational-search and other activities and the entire investigation and on the basis of the most rational construction of a system of relationships and interactions between participants in the process. The number of persons whose activities are investigated by forensic tactics include, on the one hand, persons whose professional activities are related to the collection and study of forensic information (investigator, forensic investigator, head of the investigative body, employee of the body of inquiry, specialist, expert, etc.) , and on the other - persons whose behavior is associated with the formation of sources of forensic information (suspects, accused, victims, witnesses, witnesses).

In forensic tactics, the provisions of psychology, ethics, logic, conflictology, management science, the theory of reflexive games and a number of other branches of knowledge are widely used, which creatively adapt to solving numerous and complex problems of organizing investigative activities.

Forensic tactics is inextricably linked with all sections of forensic science: theory and methodology, forensic technology, forensic investigation techniques.

The general provisions of forensic tactics are based on the theoretical and methodological provisions of forensic science, while deepening and developing them in relation to the analysis of forensic activities.

The means and techniques of forensic technology are implemented mainly during investigative actions, intertwined in their tactics. Therefore, forensic tactics, taking into account their needs, use the data of forensic technology in order to adapt them to the needs of each investigative action.

The relationship and mutual influence of forensic tactics and forensic methods of investigating certain types of crimes is significant. Tactics, like technique, is itself rather abstract. Only in the process of investigating a specific criminal case, technical and tactical techniques and methods find their application. Moreover, the nature of the techniques and methods used directly depends on the type of crime and the investigative situation.

Forensic tactics as a branch of forensic science consists of two parts.

The general provisions of forensic tactics include the concepts of a tactical technique, a tactical operation and their systems, the concepts of an investigative situation and a tactical solution, the classification of tactical tasks and levels of forensic activity from the point of view of the tasks it solves. It also discusses the principles of forensic tactics: scientific, legal, ethical.

Consideration of tactics of separate procedural actions and tactical operations, planning of investigation of crimes belongs to number of private positions of criminalistic tactics; interaction of the investigator with operational workers; studying the personality of participants in criminal proceedings; the use of special knowledge in the investigation of crimes, etc.

The forensic investigation technique is the final and final section of forensic science, which is a system scientific statements and tactical and methodological recommendations developed on their basis for the most effective disclosure, investigation and prevention of crimes.

Forensic methodology studies the criminal experience of committing certain types of crimes and the investigative practice of their investigation and develops, based on the knowledge of their laws, a system of the most effective methods investigation and prevention of various types of crimes.

Its main task is to provide the investigator with the necessary scientific and methodological complex of knowledge, methods and algorithms for the disclosure, investigation and prevention of certain types of crimes in different investigative situations, as well as the appropriate complexes for solving other investigation tasks that ensure the exposure of all participants in the criminal act and the creation of the necessary prerequisites for correct application of criminal law. With the help of forensic methodology, all the recommendations of forensic technology and tactics are implemented in practice during the investigation.

In the first decade of the existence of domestic criminology, the issues of methodology were not singled out as an independent section of science and were covered mainly as a special part of criminal (later - investigative) tactics.

Among the information sources of the investigation methodology are data on typical forensic characteristics of different types of crimes; the results of scientifically generalized criminal and investigative forensic experience; relevant criminal law and procedural norms that determine the general legal conditions of criminal proceedings; data of general and particular theories; provisions of the general scientific methodology; methods of many humanitarian and natural sciences, as well as information about the features of those areas of human activity in which specific crimes are committed.

In the structure of the investigation methodology in forensic science, two parts are conventionally distinguished. The first - general theoretical part reveals its general provisions (subject, tasks, structure, sources, links with other parts of forensic science) and scientific foundations (information-theoretical and methodological principles of the investigation methodology).

The second (special) part of this branch of criminology is private investigation methods (methods of investigating certain types of crimes), developed on the basis of and taking into account the provisions of the general theoretical part of the methodology.

The methodology for investigating certain types of crimes as part of forensic science is based on the study of the methods of committing crimes and the mechanism for the formation of material and other traces of a crime, a system of the most appropriate methods for organizing an investigation in its initial and subsequent periods, using the features of using tactics and scientific and technical means in specific conditions of investigation of certain types of crimes.

The general principles in the investigation methodology are strict and steady observance of the law in the development and implementation of methodological recommendations in the investigation process, planned, staged, fast and operational conduct. The methodological essence of these requirements stems from the fact that the methods and methods of conducting an investigation developed and used during the investigation do not contradict not only the law, but also the norms of investigative ethics. A full and comprehensive investigation is unthinkable without its clear planning in stages, combined with the rapid and prompt adoption of investigative decisions in various investigative situations and their implementation at the highest scientific and methodological level.

At the same time, the principles of constructing private methods of investigation, focus on the obligation, when developing specific methods, to take into account all the identified and studied forensic features of certain types of crimes, the degree of typicality and individuality of investigative situations that arise at different stages of the investigation, the wide and coordinated use of all types of investigative and operational interaction, the entire arsenal of special knowledge, the most modern methodological concepts of investigative activities. Accordingly, they require a high theoretical substantiation of particular methods, which ensures the most effective investigation using these methods.

In this regard, the main fundamental requirements for the design of private investigation methods are the wishes that they take into account the following:

1) data on the forensic characteristics of the relevant type of crime and information on the range of circumstances subject to primary and subsequent establishment;

2) typical features of investigative situations that arise at different stages of the investigation, versions and planning;

3) features of the initial and subsequent methods of collecting evidence and other forensic information;

4) tactical and methodological features individual investigative actions, forensic operations and the interaction of investigators with operational-search and inspection bodies;

5) features of the use of special knowledge in the investigation;

6) features of the prevention of these crimes.

According to the level of concretization of the methodological recommendations, the methods of investigation are: high degree commonality (most often the methodology for investigating a large group of heterogeneous crimes, for example, the basics of the methodology for investigating crimes committed by organized criminal groups; the basics of the methodology for investigating computer crimes); a lesser degree of generality (methods for investigating a group of homogeneous crimes, for example, crimes against property), an even lesser degree of generality (specific, subspecific methods, for example, investigating fraud, theft, extortion, misappropriation and embezzlement, etc.); a particular degree of generality - methods (investigation of certain types and subtypes of crimes in various typical investigative situations).

In modern criminology, the formation of private methods is carried out in two main areas: 1) improvement of existing ones and 2) development of new methods. The need to create new methods may be associated with the emergence, for example, of a new method of criminal encroachment - using computer technology; a new subject and means of crime - for example, fraud using bank cards. Continuous improvement of existing methods is also necessary in connection with dynamically changing social relations in various spheres of life, as well as the development of various branches of knowledge, the emergence of new technical devices that can be used both in criminal and forensic activities.

EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS' INDEPENDENT WORK

The purpose of studying the discipline "Criminalistics" is the assimilation by students of knowledge about the basic concepts and elements of the law enforcement system in Russian Federation, the formation of a clear idea of the principles and limits of the interaction of law enforcement agencies with each other and other state and public structures.

Independent work is the study of educational teaching materials without the guidance of a teacher.

This special kind educational activities intended for the formation of skills for independent study of educational tasks, in mastering the methods of organizing independent work in order to increase the effectiveness of preparation for classes.

The independent work of the student consists of several stages, which are:

1. Preliminary preparation, consisting of planning the forthcoming work, familiarization with the list of recommended legislative and regulatory educational and methodical And scientific literature;

2. The study of scientific papers on the topic and the content of theoretical issues stated in the sources;

3. Summarizing the knowledge gained, which will help to understand the main goals and objectives of the studied acts and their correct scientific understanding and evaluation, establishing the relationship of theoretical, scientific positions and problems.

With this in mind, in this regard, it will be very useful to familiarize yourself with scientific monographs, scientists' comments on a legislative act, as well as with various scientific reference books on jurisprudence and related disciplines.

Introduction

Abstract (from lat. Refero - I report, I inform, I inform, I state), summary in writing or in the form of a public presentation of the content of the book, scientific work, the results of studying a scientific problem; a report on a specific topic, including a review of relevant literature and other sources[i]. It is also a report on a given topic from certain sources. In accordance with the Small Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, an abstract is a scientific report .

The abstract contains the main provisions of the work, factual information and conclusions and allows you to determine the appropriateness of reading it in its entirety. The abstract is a form of providing the results of documentary transformation of information, that is, the process of analytical and synthetic study of documents (texts) and the preparation of secondary information that reflects the most essential elements of the content of these documents; has a scientific and informational purpose.

Regular plan:

1) topic, subject (object) and purpose of the work;

2) method of work;

3) results of work;

4) conclusions (assessments, proposals), accepted and rejected hypotheses;

5) scope.

The purpose of the abstract is to convey the content of the work being reviewed: facts, ideas, concepts, opinions.

Abstracts, also called scientific reports, have become widespread in research institutions, high school, in the system of political education, in public universities
To abstracts General requirements and rules for the preparation of abstracts, term papers and theses

2. The structure of the work - the thesis should include the following sections:

Introduction;

Chapters (I, II, III, etc.);

Conclusion;

List of used sources and literature.

Justify the need to develop this topic;

Show the relevance of the chosen topic;

Show the novelty of the setting of the chosen topic;

Briefly review the literature written on the topic;

The volume of the introduction should not exceed 5-7 pages.

Chapters provide the main content thesis. It is recommended to have three chapters divided into paragraphs.

In conclusion, the main results of the work done are briefly outlined, conclusions and suggestions are given, and recommendations for the practical use of the work are given.

The list of used sources and literature includes only those sources and literature that were used to prepare the thesis.

Sources include: laws, decrees, manifestos and other government acts, resolutions, orders, international treaties, memorandums, memos, protocols and other archival materials allowed for open use, researched texts.

Literature includes: monographs, books (non-periodical edition of 48 pages or more), brochures (non-periodical edition of 5 to 48 pages), periodicals and newspapers. The order of registration of the used sources and literature is indicated below.

BY WRITING THE SUMMARY

The abstract is not a summary; it should not copy books and articles verbatim.

The abstract is not a report, and therefore is written not from one, but from several sources.

An abstract is not a literature review, it should not list the titles of books known to you on the topic being presented.

In the abstract, the material collected on the topic is systematized and summarized, it consists of several parts:

1. title page (see sample title page)

3. introduction;

4. the main part, consisting of chapters;

5. conclusion;

6. list of used literature

Introduction:

It explains why such a topic was chosen, why it is important (personal attitude to the problem being presented), why it is relevant (the attitude of modern society to this problem), what cultural or scientific value it represents (from the point of view of researchers, scientists);

The used literature is listed: scientific articles, popular scientific literature, educational literature indicating the authors (for example: “The material for writing the abstract was ...”).

It describes what parts the abstract consists of (introduction, number of chapters, conclusion, applications. For example: “The introduction shows the idea (purpose) of the abstract ....”; “Chapter 1 is devoted to ...”; “in chapter 2 ...;”; “In conclusion, the main conclusions are formulated ...”).

Main part:

The abstract consists of several sections sequentially revealing the topic. Each of the sections considers one of the sides of the main topic. Personal position on the topic being described is supported by quotations taken from the literature (figures, facts, definitions). Quote (proof) from the literature used, is made out as a link to the source and has serial number. Links are made at the bottom of the text under the line, where the serial number of the link and the data of the book or article are indicated.

At the end of each section of the main part, a conclusion is necessarily formulated. (For example: "Thus, ..."; "It can be concluded that ..."; "As a result, one can conclude ...")

Conclusion:

The general conclusions on the main topic, the prospects for the development of the study, their own view on the solution of the problem and on the positions of the authors of the literature used, on their agreement or disagreement with them are formulated very briefly.

Bibliography:

The list is compiled in alphabetical order at the end of the abstract in accordance with established standards.

Description of collections - Title. - Place of publication: Publisher, year of publication. - Pages. (Advocacy and modernity: Collection of articles // Under the editorship of V.M. Savitsky -M., 1987. S.23-31)

Where to begin? (planning work on the abstract)

1. Choose a topic from the proposed list (or discuss with the teacher another topic that interests you).

2. Determine what kind of problem exists on this topic and possible ways its solutions (for this you need to turn the name of the topic into a question).

3. Find books and articles on the selected topic (at least 5 sources), make a list of this literature.

4. Make extracts from books and articles (pay attention to incomprehensible words and expressions, clarify their meaning in the reference literature).

5. Prepare a plan for the main part of the abstract.

6. Write an abstract.

7. Compose a message for 5-7 minutes, no more.

The volume of the abstract is not more than 20 pages (font size - 14, line spacing - 1.5).

For independent work the following essay topics are offered

Abstract topics:

By academic discipline"Criminalistics" offers the following topics of independent written works(abstracts):

1. Subject, tasks and sources of the science of criminalistics.

2. The system of criminalistics and a brief description of its sections (parts).

3. Methods of science of criminalistics.

4. Criminalistics in the system of legal sciences.

5. The concept, features, scientific foundations and tasks of forensic identification.

6. Objects of forensic identification and their classification.

7. The concept of identification features, their classification. Identification requirements. Identification set and identification field.

8. Types of forensic identification. The ability to identify a person.

9. The concept of forensic technology as a section of forensic science, its structure.

10. The concept of forensic tools and methods, their classification. Regulations regulating the use of forensic tools in investigative and operational-search activities.

11. Forensic means of detecting and fixing the traces of a crime.

12. The concept, types and significance of forensic markers.

13. The concept of forensic photography as a branch of forensic technology.

14. Features of forensic photography. Advantages of video recording over forensic photography.

15. The structure of forensic photography. Stages of the photographic process.

16. Methods and types of forensic-investigative shooting.

17. Signaling (identification) shooting of living persons and corpses (purpose, procedure for photographing and printing photographs).

18. Production and design of photo tables.

19. Features of photography during certain investigative actions.

20. The concept of forensic trasology. Classification of traces of crimes.

21. Types of objects interacting in the formation of a trace-reflection. Forensic value of traces-mappings.

22. Classification of traces-mappings.

23. The concept of fingerprinting. The value of traces of human hands in the investigation and disclosure of crimes.

24. Concept papillary patterns, their properties and types.

25. Search for traces of fingers. Precautions to be observed when searching for traces.

26. Methods for detecting, fixing and removing traces of hands. Description of traces of hands in the protocol of inspection of the scene.

27. Fingerprinting of living persons and corpses.

28. The concept of human footprints, their forensic value and views.

29. Search and detection of human footprints. Protecting footprints from destruction.

30. Removal and fixation of footprints.

31. Methods for making casts from three-dimensional footprints.

32. Measurement of human footprints. Elements of a separate footprint of a shoe, a track of footprints, a single footprint of bare feet.

33. Description of footprints in the protocol of inspection of the scene.

34. Traces of human teeth, their types and forensic. Fixation and removal of traces of teeth.

35. Traces of human blood, their types. Detection of invisible traces of blood. Fixation and removal of traces of human blood.

36. The concept, subject and meaning of habitoscopy.

37. The concept of the external appearance of a person, its elements and signs. Catchy omens.

38. The concept of "verbal portrait", its forensic meaning. The order of describing the external signs of a person according to the method of "verbal portrait".

39. Types of identification of a person on the basis of appearance, using the method of "verbal portrait".

40. Traces of hacking tools and tools.

41. Classification, mechanism of trace formation. Fixation, removal.

42. The concept and system of forensic weapons science.

43. The concept of forensic ballistics. Objects of forensic-ballistic research.

44. The concept and classification of firearms in criminalistics.

45. Ammunition for firearms. The structure of cartridges for combat and smooth-bore hunting weapons.

46. Traces of a shot. The formation of traces of a shot on the sleeve, bullet, obstacles.

47. Means and methods for detecting, fixing and storing weapons, ammunition and traces of their use.

48. Precautions when inspecting firearms.

49. The concept, signs and classification of edged weapons.

50. The concept, tasks and content of forensic documentation.

51. The concept of writing, handwriting and writing.

52. Properties of handwriting.

53. Signs of handwriting.

54. The main features of writing.

55. The concept of the topography of writing. Topographic features of writing.

57. The concept and tasks of technical and forensic research of documents.

58. The concept of documents, their classification and rules for handling them.

59. Identification of signs of forgery of documents.

60. Inspection of documents.

61. The concept, tasks and features of forensic registration.

62. Objects and methods of forensic registration. Legal grounds for registration of individuals.

63. Classification of forensic records.

64. Forensic records of internal affairs bodies.

65. Operational reference records.

The main purpose of forensic markers is to form on the offender at the moment of committing a crime, hard to wash off, clearly visible to the surrounding traces, facilitating his search in hot pursuit and subsequent exposure. The development and use of forensic markers turns random luck into a pattern, since drugs of forensic markers, when they hit a person’s body and clothes, paint them in bright colors that are easily evident to citizens, which helps to detain the criminal. The dyes used in the trace-forming agents are quite stable. They can be washed off only with the use of effective detergents, however, even after removing the colored stains, the dye particles remain for a long time under the nails, in the folds of the skin and are easily detected in ultraviolet rays, under which they luminesce. With regard to clothing, the drug that has got on it can only be completely removed by dry cleaning. During the time until the criminal washes away the dye that has fallen on him, he meets with colleagues, sellers, catering workers and other citizens who inevitably pay attention to the painted parts of the body, clothes, which greatly facilitates the establishment of his identity. In regions where the use of trace-forming agents is well established, they contribute to the disclosure of up to 25% of various thefts. Forensic markers contribute not only to disclosure, but also to the prevention of theft. After all, a large number of persons from among the criminal element become aware of their use.

Forensic markers are divided according to their purpose into two groups: for marking and for blocking objects with material values.

Forensic markers designed to block objects with material values are divided into active and passive.
Active forensic markers are those that have a device for ejecting the dye into space and thus ensure that it gets on the clothes and exposed parts of the body of the person who activated this device. The release of the dye can be carried out both when mechanical devices, such as springs, and when an explosive is triggered in special squib cartridges.

Recently, liquid markers "Kupel" began to be produced. They are designed to combat the theft of personal and government property. In case of unauthorized opening of the object, the contact is closed and the sprayed dye is immediately released, which retains a bright red color for three days, as well as luminescence in ultraviolet rays. Dye ejection range not less than 1.5 m. Dye volume - 1.5 ml. This marker can be used in a special device "Kern". The latter has a device for connecting two "Kupel" products to it. Operation occurs from a signal from a magnetic sensor or through mechanical contact. Dispersion area - 5 m.

List of used literature

1. Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. - U26 Moscow: Prospect, 2016 - 288 p.

2. Averyanova T.V., Belkin R.S., Korukhov Yu.G., Rossiyskaya E.R. Criminalistics: Textbook / Under. ed. R.S. Belkin. 3rd ed., revised. and additional M., 2008.

3. Vander M.B. Forensic examination of materials, substances, products. SPb., 2001.

4. Drapkin L.Ya., Karagodin V.N. Criminalistics: Textbook. M., 2007.

5. Egorov N.N., Ishchenko E.P. Criminalistics for investigators and interrogators: Scientific and practical guide / Ed. ed. A.V. Anichina. M., 2010. Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. - U26 Moscow: Prospect, 2016 - 288 p.

6. Ishchenko E.P. Sound film and video recording in the fight against crime. Frunze, 1974. Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. - U26 Moscow: Prospect, 2016 - 288 p.

7. Criminalistics: Textbook for universities / Ed. E.P. Ishchenko. M., 2008

8. Forensic video recording / Ed. B.N. Morozova, P.A. Golikov. Saratov, 2001. Povreznyuk G.I. Forensic methods and means of identification in the process of investigating crimes. M., 2005.

9. Povreznyuk G.I. Forensic methods and means of identification in the process of investigating crimes. M., 2005.

10. Skorchenko P.T. Criminalistics. Technical and forensic support for the investigation of crimes: Proc. settlement for universities. M.: Bylina, 1999. 272 p.

These are special means used to mark banknotes (when investigating cases of bribes), securities to protect them from counterfeiting, museum exhibits and other objects, as well as "chemical traps" to identify subjects in contact with specially marked objects, to protecting them from unauthorized access:23 3

According to the intended purpose, there are security marks applied during their manufacture to protect against counterfeiting, and the so-called "staining" marks or "chemical traps" or "forensic markers", easily transferred from the marked object to the hands of the one who touched them, and after a while, acquiring a visible color that is difficult to remove. Such tags are used mainly in forensics, and the substances used for this are called forensic identification drugs:23 4

Labels are hidden and visible. Labels that are visible under normal conditions sometimes have some hidden properties that appear under certain conditions. The mere presence of a visible label in many cases excludes even an attempt to falsify or unauthorized access. As a rule, hidden marks are used, which are invisible under normal conditions, but with the help of special lighting, chemical treatment or exposure to some energy source, they are easily detected:23 5

Forensic markers are divided according to their purpose into two groups: for applying labels for blocking objects with material values:23 6

Depending on the method of impact on the label, making it detectable by our senses, there are: luminescent, photochromic, thermochromic, magnetic labels that are sensitive to infrared radiation (IR radiation), detected by chemical processing:23 7

In expert practice, luminescent identification marks are most often encountered, used to mark banknotes in the investigation of criminal cases of bribes, and sometimes "chemical traps" are used to identify persons involved in the commission of a crime:23 8

Such labels are made on the basis of phosphors that do not absorb in the visible region of the spectrum, i.e. colorless under normal lighting, but capable of emitting visible light (glow blue, green, yellow or red) when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. In this case, the phosphor acts as a converter of higher-energy ultraviolet light into lower-energy visible light:23 9

In some cases, colored visible marks are used, similar to ordinary ink or stamp ink, but luminous in UV light. Modern tags are based on the fact that when excited with UV light of different wavelengths (254 nm and 365 nm), they have different luminescence colors:23 10

In the development of this direction, the so-called "metameric pairs" have been developed, which have the same color and appearance in daylight, but luminesce with a glow of different colors. For example, part of the text is done in purple ink with a blue glow, and the other in purple ink with a green glow:23 11

UV light is used to detect the luminescent (fluorescent) label. The most common sources of near UV light with a wavelength of 365 nm. Currently, in forensic practice, there may be labels that luminesce when excited by UV light with a wavelength of 254 nm. Labels have also been developed, consisting of a mixture of phosphors that glow in different colors depending on the wavelength of the UV light source:23 12

Hidden luminescent security tags may have an even more subtle clue. So the ink and stamp ink "Black Star" manufactured by "OLBO" are black. The image applied by them does not differ from the usual one and does not glow in UV rays. However, if filter paper (blotter paper) slightly moistened with water is briefly applied to the image made with their help, then an imprint appears on it, which, when illuminated in UV light, glows green. The secret of such a key is that the label substance does not glow in a dry state, but only in dilute solutions (the effect of concentration quenching):23 13

The principle of operation of these compounds, which are colorless in daylight, is based on the fact that when irradiated with UV light, they acquire an intense color that spontaneously disappears within minutes after the cessation of irradiation. Ink and stamp ink containing such a substance can be used to mark paper or polymers:23 14

The value of photochromic labels lies in the fact that organic compounds used for these purposes are difficult to access and expensive, which makes it practically impossible for counterfeiters to use them. The disadvantage of such labels is their fragility. The image they made on paper lasts no more than two months, on polymer - 3-4 months:23 15

Labels of this type, as a rule, are initially painted in some color. When heated, the color of the label changes, and when cooled, it returns to its original color. The main problem facing developers is the creation of such preparations in the form of inks or stamp inks. So far, such marks can only be applied with a brush, which sharply narrows the scope:23 16

A distinctive feature of luminescent, photo- and thermochromic labels is that the labels are detected only on a short time. After the action of UV light or heat, the substances of these labels return (immediately or after a short time) to their original state. On the one hand, this is good, because the marked object again takes on its original form, and the label's secrecy is thus again ensured, and the visualization can be repeated many times. On the other hand, if it is necessary to document this label, certain difficulties arise. Therefore, the labels listed above are most effective in rapid control:23 17

Highly concentrated, stable suspensions of ferrous oxide in water are used as magnetic marks. The image deposited with such a suspension is easily magnetized and can be easily identified using magnetic sensors such as a US currency detector. The most widespread use of magnetizing powder in printing inks is to protect banknotes, credit cards, etc.:23 18

The disadvantage of this type of label is that laser printers also apply the image using a magnetizable powder. To get around this, US banknote security developers used so-called metameric ink pairs: part of the text is printed with magnetizable ink, and the other part with ink of the same color, but not capable of magnetization:23 19

organic compounds are capable of absorbing (reflecting) infrared light in a certain wavelength range, different for each compound. Therefore, it is possible to choose a label that will absorb IR light of only a certain wavelength. By illuminating the mark with an IR light source of a certain wavelength and observing the object through a night vision device, this mark can be recognized as a light (dark) spot:23 20

It is possible to use metameric pairs that differ from each other by absorption regions in the IR region of light, which makes it possible to increase the degree of protection of valuable documents. The disadvantage of the method is expensive detection devices:23 21

The principle of detection (visualization) of such marks is based on the fact that a mark not visible in daylight reacts with an aqueous solution of a colorless developer, giving a color image. One example is a colorless pH indicator that changes color when the pH of the medium changes. With the skillful selection of the indicator, the color change area of which is located below pH = 6, under the action of the atmosphere, over time, the pH returns to its original value and the image disappears. There are other variants of marks visualized by chemical processing. An example is the special preparation "Ink - 7", which begins to glow in UV rays after pre-treatment with special reagents:23 22

For applying labels on money, securities, various items (for example, transferred as a bribe), the following are currently produced: A set of reagents and devices "Rhododendron". It is designed for applying labels on banknotes. The hidden inscription made is not detected with the help of household illuminators and ultraviolet devices; :23 23

A special agent in aerosol package "Firefly" is intended for applying a thin layer of a luminescent substance with increased adhesion to the human skin and invisible under normal conditions, on banknotes, documents and other objects. When the fingers come into contact with various surfaces on which the drug is present (for example, on a door handle), fingerprints remain visible under the action of ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of 365 nm. Surface area treated from one aerosol package 1.5 m 2 ; :23 24

Marking felt-tip pens "M" and "K" are designed for applying labels, inscriptions on various objects and documents in order to identify them or exclude forgery. "M" brand markers are used for marking paper materials, and "K" brand markers are used for marking objects made of metals, plastics, leather, fabrics, etc. In ultraviolet rays, the "M" markers give a blue glow, and the "K" markers - green: 23 25

Forensic markers designed to block objects with material values are divided into active active passive passive:23 26

They have a device for ejecting the dye into space and thus ensure that it gets on the clothes and open parts of the body of the person who activated this device. Dye can be released both when mechanical devices, such as springs, and when explosives in special squibs are triggered:23 27

:23 28

"Font" "Doll" "Purse" "Bottle": 23 29

There are no active devices. Their design is designed for direct contact with him by the person committing the crime. In passive forensic markers, powder mixtures or ointments are applied either directly to an object that may attract the attention of a criminal, or placed in bags, paraffin capsules or other packaging and disguised among such objects:23 30

Passive markers are camouflaged in the packaging of liquor products, firearms holsters, bank packages, ladies' and cash-in-transit bags, pay phone handsets, boxes for various souvenirs and expensive sweets, wrappers for chocolate bars, in boxes for narcotic drugs, etc. When opening such objects, the dye wakes up and the dye gets on the body and clothes of the attacker. Often, ointments are prepared on the basis of petroleum jelly and dyes, which are used to process specially prepared rugs. At the end of the working day, they are placed at doors, on window sills, and if a criminal enters through doors or windows, his shoes are painted in a bright color and you can trace his route from the scene, and then use it as evidence in the case:23 31

The operation of active forensic markers is accompanied by a certain noise (squib shot, spring click) and is always obvious to the criminal. When a passive marker is triggered, the offender may not be aware of this fact and discovers it only after some time. The same object can be blocked by both active and passive forensic markers. At the same time, along with forensic markers, objects are often installed that make it easier to leave traces of the criminal's fingers:23 32

The following requirements are imposed on forensic markers: 1. They must not be dangerous to human life and health. 2. The design of forensic markers must constantly change. When using the same designs of forensic markers, criminals will quickly learn to recognize them and will not touch them when committing thefts. Using different types of markers avoids this. 3. Forensic markers must be reliable in operation, designed for long-term use in various climatic zones:23 33

:23 34

For detection, ultraviolet or IR illuminators are used. In some cases, preliminary processing of the object is necessary for the appearance of luminescence of the applied label:23 35
Establishment of factual data, circumstances of the case, based on the general provisions of forensic examination and special knowledge in the field of chemistry, methods of luminescent and other analytical methods of analysis:23 39

Detection of identification marks on the subject-carrier. Establishment of a common generic (group) affiliation of the compared objects by composition or their identity. Identification of masses (volumes) of forensic identification preparations, divided into parts in connection with the event under investigation:23 41

Are there traces of a luminescent substance on the presented objects? If available, do they have a common generic (group) affiliation with the presented identification drug. Do the particles of the luminescent substance on the presented objects have a common generic (group) affiliation? Are there traces of the drug on the presented objects, which was used to mark banknotes? :23 42

The complexity of the expert study of forensic identification drugs is due, first of all, to their diversity and the lack of information about the properties of these drugs. It is clear that the full composition of these drugs and the specific substance underlying them can be closed both in order to protect against counterfeiting and be a trade secret of the manufacturer:23 43

However, information about the main identification properties and characteristics of preparations (solubility in various solvents, spectral characteristics, etc.) is necessary for conducting an expert study. Otherwise, the expert has to conduct a comparative study of unknown substances, which not only significantly increases the time for the examination, but also due to the trace amount of the drug, for example, in hand washings, it often makes it impossible to detect and study it, leading to expert errors:23 44

For successful expert studies, it is necessary that the investigator, when appointing an examination, not only provide a comparative sample of the identification drug used, but also information about its main physical and chemical properties. In identification studies, only a conclusion about a common group affiliation is possible. An individual-specific identity can only be established in very rare cases:23 45

Moiseeva T.F. New possibilities of using identification preparations in forensic science and problems of their expert research. - Newsletter 21 based on the materials of the Forensic Readings "Requests for practice - driving force development of forensic science and forensics. "- M .: Academician of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Skorchenko P.T. Forensic science. Technical and forensic support for the investigation of crimes: Study guide .- M .: Bylina, Moiseeva T.F. Forensic investigation of substances, materials and products from them. Course of lectures, - M.,: 23 46