Message ancient arabia nature lifestyle occupations. Arabs
North Arabian tribes and state formations. On the periphery of the large states of Mesopotamia and the small principalities of the Eastern Mediterranean coast, there was a vast territory of the Syrian-Mesopotamian steppe and Northern Arabia, inhabited in antiquity by tribes: Aribis, Kedreys, Nabataeans, Samud, etc., who led a nomadic lifestyle. The main occupation of the population is cattle breeding (horses, donkeys, large and small cattle, camels). They ran a nomadic economy. Tribal unions and small states dominated. It is possible that some of them were principalities (Nabatea). Their rulers in Assyrian documents were usually referred to as "kings" or, more correctly, "sheikhs". The Arab tribes gradually developed their own military organization, tactics, elements of military art. They did not have a regular army, all adult men of the tribe were warriors. The Arab nomads had their own tactics of warfare: unexpected raids on the enemy and a quick disappearance in the boundless desert. Being in the neighborhood with the strong ancient Eastern kingdoms - Egypt and Assyria, as well as with the small states of the Eastern Mediterranean coast, which were often attacked by powerful powers, the North Arab tribal unions and principalities were often involved in international contradictions of that time (9-7 centuries BC. ) - Arab-Assyrian clashes (mid-9th century BC). Arab tribes united and entered into alliances with Egypt and Babylon against Assyria.
The rise of the Persian state and the development of its conquest plans led to the establishment of contacts between the Persians and the Arabs of the northern part of the peninsula, but the Arabs were never under the yoke of the Persians, according to Herodotus, they participated in the Greco-Persian wars on the side of the Persians (5th century BC) , resisted the Greek-Macedonian troops during the campaign of A. Macedon to the east (4th century BC).
South Arabia. In the south and southwest of the Arabian Peninsula, on the territory of the modern Yemeni Arab and Yemeni People's Democratic Republic, there existed in ancient times a number of state formations that were the most important centers of the ancient Yemeni civilization. The northernmost was Main (with centers - the cities of Iasil and Karnavu). South of Main was Saba, centered on Marib. To the south of it is Kataban with its capital in Timna. To the south of Kataban is Ausan with its center in Miswar, and to the east is Hadhramaut with its capital in Shabwa.
The emergence of the most ancient states dates back to the 10th-8th centuries. BC. The states of Main, Kataban, Aswan, Hadhramaut and Saba in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. enter the struggle for dominance.
In 3-1 centuries. BC. - The dominance of Kataban. In the 1st century BC. - Sabaean kingdom. At the end of the 2nd century BC. a new, Himyarite state with the capital Zafar, which was previously part of Kataban, advanced. By the beginning of the 4th c. BC. she established her hegemony over all of southern Arabia. From the middle of the 1st millennium BC. and until the middle of the 1st millennium AD. Arabia was in close contact with Greece, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Roman Empire. Military clashes in Aksum (Ethiopia).
The economy is associated with the development of irrigation land ownership and nomadic pastoralism, as well as handicrafts. Directions for the development of trade: exchange between the agricultural and pastoral tribes of Arabia; international trade in incense with many countries of the ancient Eastern and ancient world; transit trade with the Middle East in Indian and African goods. But at the end of the 1st millennium BC. a number of factors led to strong shocks in the economy of southern Arabia: a change in trade routes (the establishment of direct sea routes between Egypt, Turkey, Persia, India), as well as climate change towards greater aridity and the onset of deserts on fertile oases and agricultural zones, the destruction of irrigation facilities , natural disasters (repeated breaks of the Marib dam). The infiltration of the Bedouins into the settled agricultural zones intensified. Thus, the complication of the internal and external political situation and constant wars led to the decline of the South Arabian states.
public relations and political system. In the middle of the II millennium BC. and the South Arabic linguistic and tribal community, the separation of large tribal unions began: Minean, Kataban, Sabian. At the end of the 2nd millennium - the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. as a result of the development of productive forces, productive relations began to change. On the territory of Ancient Yemen, class early slave-owning societies arose. Noble families stood out, which gradually concentrated political power in their hands. Social strata were formed: the priesthood and the merchant class. Land, as a means of production, was owned by rural and urban communities, which regulated water supply, carried out a division between community members who owned plots of land, paid taxes and performed duties in favor of the state, temples, and community administration. The main economic unit was a large patriarchal family (large family community).
A special category of land was a very extensive temple property. Much land was in the hands of the state. The subjugated population worked on state lands, performing a number of duties and being essentially state slaves. Free people, persons dedicated to this or that deity, temple slaves worked in the temple possessions in order to fulfill their duties. The slaves were mostly from among the prisoners of war, debt slavery was not widespread. Documents speak of the presence of slaves in private and temple households, in the household of the ruler and his family, in large patriarchal families they were equated with the younger members of the family.
The system of political structure of the South Arabian peoples can be shown on the example of the Sabaean kingdom. It consisted of 6 “tribes”, of which 3 belonged to the number of privileged, and 3 others occupied a subordinate position. Each tribe was divided into large branches, the latter - into smaller ones, and they, in turn, into separate genera. The tribes were ruled by Kabir chiefs who came from noble families, perhaps there were councils of elders under the tribes.
Privileged tribes elected eponyms from representatives of noble families for a certain period of time - important officials of the state who performed priestly duties related to the cult of the supreme god Astara, also carried out astronomical observations, and compiled a calendar. Until the 3rd-2nd centuries, the highest officials who had executive power and exercised control of the state were. BC. mukarribs. During the war, mukarribs could assign themselves the functions of leadership of the militia, and then they received for a while the title of “malik” - king. Gradually, the mukarribs concentrated in their hands the prerogatives of royal power, and at the end of the 1st millennium BC. their position actually turned into a royal one. The supreme body of the state was the Council of Elders. It included mukarrib and representatives of all 6 Sabian tribes, and unprivileged tribes had the right to only half representation. The Council of Elders had sacred, judicial and legislative functions, as well as administrative and economic ones. Other South Arab states had a similar arrangement.
Gradually, in the South Arab states, along with the tribal division, territorial division also arose. It was based on cities and settlements with adjoining rural districts, which had their own autonomous system of government. Each Sabaean citizen belonged to one of the consanguineous tribes and at the same time was part of a certain territorial unit.
1. Nature and occupations of the population of the Arabian Peninsula. 2. Reasons for the formation of a single Arab state. 3. Muhammad is the founder of Islam. 4. Arab conquests. 5. Arab caliphate and its collapse. 6. Culture of the countries of the Caliphate. 2/1/2018 2
"HAPPY" ARABIA SETTED ARAB FARMING One of Oman's oases GRAIN CROPS SUGAR CANE COTTON
Population - Arabs Peninsula - Arabian Climate - dry and hot Occupations - cattle breeding (Bedouins), agriculture (oases, south and west) The largest city is Mecca. Caravans - India, Iran, Byzantium. Annual fairs Beliefs before the adoption of Islam - paganism.
INEQUALITY. CONTRADICTIONS BETWEEN THE RICH AND THE POOR THE NEED TO RESPOND TO EXTERNAL ENEMIES THE DESIRE TO SEIZE THE WEALTH OF NEIGHBOR COUNTRIES INTERTRIBE AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCE
610 - THE BEGINNING OF THE PREACHING ACTIVITY OF MUHAMMED 622 - THE RESETTLEMENT OF MUHAMMED FROM MECCA TO MEDINA. THE BEGINNING OF THE MUSLIM CALCULATION (HIJRA) 630 - THE CONQUERATION OF THE MUSLIMS OF MECCA. THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE
Believe that there is only a single evidence of the faith God - Allah, and Muhammed - the Prophet praying five times a day of prayer (perform Namaz) to sacrifice the fifth part of the income donation to the alms to observe the post month Post a year from dawn to sunset at least once in the life of Hajj TO PILGRIMAGE HOLY PLACES (MECCA, MEDINA)
SHARIA IS THE RIGHT WAY Studying the Quran in a madrasah PROHIBITION DON'T KILL USURY ENCOURAGED DON'T STEAL DON'T LIE TRADING CONDEMNED LOVE NEAR THEFT RESPECT THE PROHIBITION OF WINE, PARENTS OF GAMBLING
FIGHTING YOUR PASSIONS REMOVING SOCIAL INJUSTICE CONTINUOUS DIFFERENCE IN PROGRESSING ISLAM Waging WAR AGGRESSORS IN THE NAME OF ALLAH
PLACE FOR COLLECTIVE PRAYER PLACE FOR EDUCATION PLACE FOR MEETINGS AND DISCUSSION OF IMPORTANT ISSUES PLACE FOR MEDICAL CARE
SUNNITS SHIITES consider it legitimate to believe that power in the successors of the community should belong to Muhammad the first four caliphs - Abu exclusively to his Bakr, Umar, Usman and descendants (children of Ali, Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, and Ali, he is recognized, along with his cousin) by the Koran, legends (sunnah) about the prophet Muhammad
After the death of the prophet in 632, the Arabs chose rulers from among his companions and relatives. They received the title of caliphs - deputies of the prophet. The caliphs concentrated spiritual and secular power in their hands.
Arabic script Arabs settled in many conquered lands, mixed with the local population. Gradually, the Arabic language became more and more widespread. The Koran played an important role in the spread of the Arabic language among the conquered peoples, and it was strictly forbidden to translate it from Arabic.
Arab conquerors enter the palace of the Persian Shahinshahs Conquerors long time did not close Christian and other churches in the conquered territory, did not prevent the inhabitants from performing their religious rites. However, all non-Muslims were heavily taxed and had to support the army at their own expense.
The inhabitants of the conquered countries did not have the right to carry weapons, they had to differ from the Arabs in clothing, and they had to ride only on mules. They were not allowed to testify in court against Muslims. Only those who converted to Islam were exempted from taxes. Therefore, gradually many became Muslims.
A few centuries later, such once-Christian countries as Egypt, Syria, Palestine, became Islamic, their inhabitants began to speak Arabic. The population of Iran, Central Asia, North-Western India became Muslim, but local languages are preserved here.
SCIENCE Harun al-Rashid In the 8th-9th centuries, the scientific works of ancient Greek, Iranian, and Indian scientists were translated into Arabic. Especially many translations were made under Harun ar-Rashid and his son. In Baghdad, the "House of Wisdom" was then founded - a repository of manuscripts, where books were translated and copied.
SCIENCE Arab mathematicians knew the works of Pythagoras, Euclid and Archimedes, Indian astronomers and mathematicians. They created algebra, began to use Indian numerals. Gradually, these figures began to be called Arabic, and their account penetrated into Europe.
SCIENCE There were observatories in Baghdad and Damascus. Using sophisticated instruments, astronomers were able to approximately calculate the circumference of the Earth, described the position of visible stars in the sky.
THE SCIENCE written history was born to the Arabs along with Islam. There were legends and messages about Muhammad, his biography, information about how Islam arose. Historians glorified the conquests of the Arabs and summarized the history of the Roman, Byzantine and Iranian rulers.
SCIENCE The Arabs held geography in high esteem. The proverb speaks of this: “Whoever sets out on a journey for the sake of science, before that the doors of paradise open.” Geographers not only studied reports about other countries, but also sought to visit them, and at the risk of their lives made long journeys.
SCIENCE Medicine successfully developed. The great scientist Ibn Sina (980 - 1037) lived in Central Asia, in Europe he was called Avicenna. He was a very versatile thinker - philosopher, astronomer, geographer, physician, poet. He owns more than a hundred scientific works.
LITERATURE Merchants and camel drivers brought wonderful tales from other countries. They were told in the palaces of the caliph and the nobility, in the bazaars, streets and houses of Baghdad. Many listeners loved stories about amazing travels and adventures.
LITERATURE Common people passed on funny stories about cunning people who deftly deceived judges and officials. From these tales, the collection known to the whole world was later compiled "A Thousand and One Nights", which absorbed the traditions and legends of many peoples.
LITERATURE Ferdowsi reads the poem "Shahnameh" One of the most famous poets was Ferdowsi (934-1020). For more than 30 years he worked on the poem "Shahnameh" ("The Book of Kings"). It tells about the struggle of the Iranian people against the conquerors, glorifies the exploits of the legendary heroes.
ART Of all the arts, architecture was the most developed in the Caliphate. The builders erected magnificent palaces, tombs and fortresses for the caliphs. The whole world knows the Alhambra - the palace of the emir in the Spanish city of Granada. Alhambra Palace
ART Mosques were built in cities. The mosque served not only as a place of prayer, but also as a courtroom, a repository of books, as well as money collected for the poor, and just a club where one could talk with friends.
ART Compared to a Christian temple, the decoration of the mosque is the simplest: it has no furniture, no expensive utensils, no musical instruments. The floor is covered with carpets, on which visitors sit down, having previously left their shoes behind the doors; the walls are painted with sayings from the Koran
ART Near the mosque, one or more minarets of high towers were erected, from which special ministers called believers to prayer five times a day.
ART Arab buildings were richly decorated with stone carvings, tiles, mosaics on the walls and on the floor. The walls of buildings were covered with arabesques - complex geometric patterns of intersecting and intertwining lines. The image of people and animals is forbidden by Islam.
1. How did Islam originate and what are the foundations of its teachings? 2. What were the reasons Arab conquests and the consequences of the formation of the Arab Caliphate? 3. Find on the map the territories conquered by the Arabs. 4. Why did the Arab Caliphate collapse? 5. What was the flourishing of Arab culture? What cultural achievements did Western Europe borrow from the Arabs?
Target : to consider the features of the life of the Arab tribes and trace the path of the emergence of the state among the Arabs, to form in students an idea of a new world religion that originated in the 7th century - Islam, to consider Islam as one of the world religions; to develop in students the ability to work with a historical map, textbook text; continue to develop in students a sense of respect for the culture of other peoples; religious tolerance, tolerance.
Equipment: textbook by I.M. Likhtey “History of the Middle Ages”, map “Arab Caliphate in VII-XI centuries centuries”, computer presentation “Arab Caliphate.”
Lesson type: learning new knowledge
Basic concepts: Islam, Allah, Muhammad, Quran, Sharia, Arabs, Bedouins, fellahs, Kaaba, prayer, zakat, shahada, mosque, minaret.
Throughout the lesson, the teacher switches the presentation slides on the interactive whiteboard, according to each part of the material being explained.
During the classes.
IOrganizing time.
IIUpdating the basic knowledge of students
Looking at pictures of Arabs - what do you think is the topic of our lesson today? Who are the Arabs?
IIIMotivation for learning activities
slide 1. Currently, there are more than two dozen Arab states that occupy the territory of Western Asia and North Africa from Mesopotamia to the Strait of Gibraltar. In the 7th-8th centuries, a powerful state, the Arab Caliphate, existed on this vast territory. Today we have to learn about the emergence of Islam, how the state of the Arab Caliphate was formed, and trace its fate.
slide 2 . In the East, the border of Byzantium was in close contact with the territories where the Arab tribes had long lived. In the 7th century, previously invisible nomads unite into a powerful state and become a real threat to other powers. How can one explain the sudden successes of the desert nomads, what external and internal factors influenced the organization of the Arab state? This is the question we will try to answer with you in our lesson.
IVLearning new material
one . Nature and occupations of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula.
Teacher's story
Slide 3. The climate of Arabia is dry and hot. Most of the territory has steppes and deserts. Little land suitable for agriculture
slide 4. Only a small part of the Arabian Peninsula was suitable for agriculture. Settled Arabs in the oases in the south and west of Arabia. They grew cotton, cultivated orchards, vineyards, date palms, sugar cane and bread.
Slide 5. The main occupation of the population was nomadic cattle breeding. Nomadic Arabs - Bedouins moved with their herds across the steppes. They raised camels, sheep, horses. The camel was an inseparable companion of the Bedouin. Camels gave them almost everything they needed for life. Their milk and meat are used for food, fabrics and ropes were made from wool, skins for waterskins and other utensils were made from skins, manure was used for fuel, and even urine, with a lack of water, was used for washing.
The camel is the best vehicle in the desert. In Arabic, the words "camel" and "beauty" come from the same root.
slide 6. The ancient trade route from Byzantium to Africa and India ran along the coast of the Red Sea. Trade settlements and cities with bazaars, inns (caravanserais) and sanctuaries of local deities arose in oases along the way. One of the largest is the city of Mecca.
So, - How did the nature and geographical position of Arabia affect the occupations of its population? (students answer the question). + drawing up and filling out a diagram
Decomposition of the tribal system among the Arabs
Slide 7. The Bedouins lived in tribes and clans. The tribes were led by leaders. They led the warriors during the raids, chose places for nomads, sorted out disputes between fellow tribesmen. Usually the leader was chosen from a wealthy family, so that he, if necessary, could feed the poor and redeem the captives. The tribes grew in numbers, and it became crowded on their former pastures. There were many poor people and people expelled from the tribe for any misconduct. The tribes began to fight among themselves. And these wars sometimes lasted for decades.
Why did the tribes fight?
Because of the best pastures.
The practice of blood vengeance.
Each tribe worshiped its own deities.
Brainstorming Method- What could stop constant wars?
Gradually, among the Arabs there is a desire for unification. The following reasons contributed to this:
An end to tribal feuds.
Fight against external enemies.
The decline of trade.
The nobility wanted to unite the tribes in order to strengthen power over the poor.
The nobility sought to unite the tribes in order to capture and conquer neighboring countries.
The unification of the Arab tribes was also helped by the emergence of a new religion - Islam.
2. The rise of Islam. Prophet Muhammad.
slide 8. The further history of the Arabs is connected with the name of Muhammad. Notebook entry: 570-632 - the years of the life of Muhammad
Student's message about the Prophet Muhammad
Writing in a notebook- Prophet Muhammad (570-632)
slide 9. 610 - beginning of sermons
The people of Mecca were hostile to Muhammad's preaching. In 622, the Prophet fled with his supporters to the neighboring city of Yathrib. This event is called hijra, from which the Muslim calendar begins.
Notebook entry: 622 - year hijri.
The inhabitants of Yathrib accepted the teachings of Muhammad. Yathrib was renamed the City of the Prophet - Medina. In Medina, the first house was built for the prayers of the worshipers of the teachings of Muhammad - mosque.
slide 10. In 630, Muhammad conquered Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632, most of the Arabs had accepted the new religion and new government.
An Arab state was formed on the Arabian Peninsula.
Slide 11. What contributed to the unification of the Arabs?
Do we have Muslims in Ukraine?
Today Islam is practiced by about 1.5 billion people all over the world. The Prophet Muhammad remains the most revered prophet. Islam does not endow him with supernatural features. The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes that the messenger of God is the same person as everyone else. Unlike previous prophets, he performed almost no miracles. However, for every Muslim, the Prophet Muhammad is a perfect person, and His life is the best example to follow.
Fundamentals of the Muslim Faith
slide 12. Thoughts, prophecies of Muhammad were recorded in the holy book of Muslims - the Koran. Recording new words in a notebook: Koran
The Qur'an consists of 114 sections \ suras \ of different lengths, the length of the suras decreases towards the end of the book, the suras are divided into verses, and each verse is called "ayat", i.e. a miracle.
The language of the Quran is considered divine, so for a long time the Quran was not translated into other languages. The first translations in Europe date back to the 12th century.
The Quran says that Allah created the world in six days. Having created living creatures, on the sixth day Allah created the first man from clay - Adam and from his rib - Eve. And the seventh day - for Muslims this is Friday - is considered a day of rest. Sunnah - a record of sayings ( hadith) Prophet Mohammed
slide 13. The first of the surahs of the Koran - al Fatiha performs the same role as the Christian prayer "Our Father". - video clip
Hasidim (sayings and instructions) of the prophet Muhammad
1. The one whom prayer does not restrain from bad deeds has gone far from God.
2. Pleasure from a little is an inexhaustible wealth.
3. Paradise - under the feet of mothers.
4. Shame - from faith.
5. Dry eyes are a sign of a hard heart.
6. The best of you are those who call you to good.
7. It is a great betrayal if you did not say anything to your brother, and he (believing) confirmed what you said, and you lied to him.
8. To become a liar, it is enough to repeat everything that you heard.
9. To become ignorant, it is enough to say everything you know.
10. Friendliness to people is half the mind.
11. Asking well is half knowledge.
12. Seek knowledge even in China, the pursuit of knowledge is the duty of every Muslim man and woman.
13. Teacher and student are friends in a good deed.
14. Everyone who died defending his property is a holy martyr.
15. The property of a Muslim is the blood of a Muslim.
16. Poverty is the threshold of disappointment, and envy can change a person's destiny.
1. What is your attitude to the instructions of Muhammad?
The Five Pillars of Islam
According to the provisions of Islam, a Muslim has five main duties.
Work in microgroups
The game "Restore the sentence" - you need to restore the correct word order in sentences - and write it down. (The words on the cards are scattered)
1)Shahada- to believe in the existence of a single god - Allah and Muhammad - his prophet.
*** Devotion to Islam is confirmed by pronouncing a brief formula: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God." Shahada recitation three times in front of witnesses is the main part of the ritual of accepting Islam by an adult (not a Muslim from birth)
2) Namaz- perform the obligatory prayer five times a day; (in the morning, around noon, in the afternoon, after sunset, and before bed).
3) Ramadan- once a year to adhere to a mandatory fast - from dawn to dusk; (month 9 of the Muslim lunar calendar) for one month of the year.
4)Zakat- alms and a special tax in favor of the poor (1/5 of the profit)
5)Hajj- once in a lifetime to make a pilgrimage to the holy cities - Mecca and Medina. (In Saudi Arabia).
Slide 14 job verification
Working with historical document
Jihad - holy war against infidels is another duty of Muslims
slide 15. customs and customs of Muslims
3. Arab Caliphate.
Teacher's story
slide 16. After the death of Muhammad, his relatives and associates took over as head of the Islamic state. The state was directly headed caliph - "deputy of the prophet." The first four caliphs were his closest relatives and students. The state itself was named Caliphate.
slide 17. Problem statement - Why were the conquests of the Arabs successful?
Working with historical documents ( read - draw conclusions about the reasons for military success Arabs)
A) an excerpt from the work of Ibn Ishaq about the beginning of the conquests of the Arabs
“They say that Abu Bekr, the first righteous caliph who became the head of the Arabs after Muhammad, decided to send troops to Syria. He called on the inhabitants of Mecca and all the Arabs of Taif, Nejd, Yemen, Hijaz to go to a holy war. Abu Bekr promised them rich booty. And people hurried to him - some to earn the favor of Allah, others - wanting to receive earthly blessings.
B) The army of the Arabs in the VI-VIII centuries consisted of separate tribal and tribal units.
The cavalry in the Arab army was several times inferior in number to the infantry - not every Arab could acquire and maintain a horse. Camels or horses were usually used to speed up the transfer of infantry. High mobility was a feature of the Arab army. Given this quality, the command widely applied the principle of surprise.
Camels were used not only to speed up the march of the infantry, but also to fight. For this, camel riders were armed with long spears.
The best and main part of the Arab army was the cavalry. Since the 9th century, it begins to be divided into light and heavy. Heavy cavalry had long spears, swords, clubs, battle axes and defensive weapons - lighter than those of knights Western Europe. The light cavalry were armed with bows and long thin javelins.
slide 18. Arab conquests - video clip
The task is to remember the countries captured by the Arab conquerors.
Thus, during the 7th and the first half of the 8th century, a huge Arab state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Damascus. The possessions of the caliphate stretched from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China.
Slide 19 the battle of Poitiers - the solution of a chronological problem- If the Europeans had this battle in 732, in what year did the Arabs?
slide 20. Notebook entry: 661-750 - The Umayyad Caliphate
The Arab caliphate was a state created as a result of conquests different peoples. The only way to keep them in line was by force. Caliphs created for this huge standing army- up to 160,000 soldiers, and for their own protection - the palace guard. According to Arab laws, all the land belonged to the caliphs, only for a time they ceded it in parts to their servants.
Emirs- Deputies of Caliphs
Slide 21. In 750, the Abbasid dynasty, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas, came to power. Baghdad became the capital of the new Caliphate.
Notebook entry: 750 - 1258 - accession of the Abbasid dynasty.
The heyday of the Baghdad Caliphate is considered to be the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (768-809). He was the hero of the collection of fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights." In them, Harun appears as a just sovereign. In fact, he was a cunning and cruel despot. His subjects hated him, he was afraid to live in Baghdad and settled in a fortress outside the city.
The collapse of the Caliphate
slide 22. All non-Muslims in the caliphate were heavily taxed and had to maintain an army at their own expense. The inhabitants of the conquered countries did not have the right to carry weapons, they had to differ from the Arabs in clothing. They were not allowed to testify in court against Muslims. In the VIII-IX centuries, a wave swept through the caliphate popular uprisings against the rule of the Arabs, which undermined the forces of the Caliphate. - one of the reasons for the collapse. What about others?
To find out the second reason, we suggest remembering why the empire of Charlemagne collapsed.
4.Culture of the Arab Caliphate.
slide 23. Although we call this culture Arab, this is not entirely true, because it absorbed the cultures of the peoples conquered by the Arabs. The Arabs showed a rare ability to assimilate the knowledge and traditions of the conquered peoples. Moreover, they managed to combine the cultural achievements of different countries into one whole based on Islam and the Arabic language.
The caliphate included many countries with a high ancient culture: Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia. Islam spread widely in these countries, and with it the Arabic language. It was called "Latin of the East". But unlike the Latin language in the Middle Ages, the Arabic language was a living, spoken language for many peoples of the East. It was used in court cases, it was studied in schools. Arabic became the language of science and literature.
Every noble person wished to have as many outstanding poets, scientists, experts of the Koran as possible in his environment. The more famous people surrounded him, the higher was his prestige and fame. Writers and scientists most often lived at the palaces of caliphs and emirs, received maintenance and gifts from their patrons, for this they glorified them, dedicated their works to them.
slide 24 . “The most important ornament of a person is knowledge,” says an Arabic proverb. In Baghdad, Cordoba, Cairo, there were higher schools - madrasas, in which, along with the Koran, secular sciences were studied. These universities have become models for future Western European universities. There were huge libraries (Cairo, Cordova, etc.), where thousands of books were collected. The rapid spread of books was facilitated by the fact that in the VIII century. The Arabs borrowed the art of paper making from China.
slide 25. Development scientific knowledge- view video clip
Compare the level of development of science in Western Europe and the countries of the Caliphate?
Slide 26, 27. Interestingly, the task of al-Biruni has survived to this day. Over time, its content has changed somewhat, this is how this task sounds now. I suggest you solve it.
slide 28. Finally, for all times and peoples, the unsurpassed attraction of Arabic literature remains "A Thousand and One Nights", which absorbed the tales of different peoples of the Arab-Muslim world.
Various genres of poetry developed rapidly. One of the most famous poets was Ferdowsi. He created a huge epic "Shahnameh" ("Book of Kings"), which describes the deeds of the Persian shahs. Firdowsi highly valued knowledge: “Look for the path to reasonable words, go through the whole world to gain knowledge.”
Slide 29 .The heyday of the Arab Caliphate was distinguished by significant construction. Majestic mosques, the palace of the caliphs, mausoleums, tombs, fortresses were built.
The main building of the Muslim East was mosque. Outwardly, mosques often resembled fortresses surrounded by blank walls with a minimum of decorations. The walls of the mosques were joined by tall minarets, from which believers were called to prayer five times a day. However, a completely different picture was revealed when entering the mosques. At first, believers found themselves in a rectangular courtyard surrounded by arched galleries. A fountain for ablution was often placed in the center of the courtyard. A prayer hall was combined with the courtyard. The ceiling of the hall rests on rows of columns. In the famous Cordoba mosque (VIII-X centuries), there are about a thousand marble columns. It was made up of 250 chandeliers out of 7000 lamps. The Cairo Mosque (XIV century) is considered beautiful. A holy place in the mosque is a fur slave - a niche in the wall, facing towards Mecca and much decorated with carvings or mosaics. Prayers are always turned to the fur of the slave. There are no icons in mosques. No frescoes. Islam forbids portraying God and worshiping with any image. However, the interior of the mosque is richly decorated with arabesques - intertwined lines, geometric shapes and flowers. Arabesques are made with mosaics, carvings, inlays. Along with the ornament on the walls of mosques, there are many inscriptions (sayings from the Koran), which themselves resemble an ornament (ligature). This is the art of calligraphy, which the Arabs mastered.
V Consolidation of the studied material
slide 31.
- graphic dictation
Most of the Arabian Peninsula is desert. (Yes)
Northern Arabs were engaged in agriculture. (Not)
The founder of Islam is Muhammad. (Yes)
The holy book of Muslims is the Sunnah. (Not)
"Faithful" - so called Christians. (Not)
Caliphs - "Deputies of the Prophet". (Yes)
Caliph Harun al-Rashid is only the hero of the tales of the Thousand and One Nights. (Not)
Arabs have achieved outstanding success in science. (Yes)
Arabesque - the ability to beautifully write letters. (Not)
The minaret is the city where Mohammed was born. (Not)
Muslims are people who practice Islam (Yes)
Solving the problematic issue of the lesson
Can it be argued that Islam contributed to the unification of the Arab tribes (according to the “Press” method)
VIIHouse. the task –slide 32.
§11 (retelling), in writing: "Compare the basic duties of Christians and Muslims."
The Arabs call Arabia their homeland - Jazirat al-Arab, that is, the “Island of the Arabs”.
Indeed, from the west, the Arabian Peninsula is washed by the waters of the Red Sea, from the south - by the Gulf of Aden, from the east - by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. The rugged Syrian Desert stretches to the north. Naturally, with such geographical location the ancient Arabs felt isolated, that is, "living on an island."Speaking about the origin of the Arabs, they usually single out historical and ethnographic areas that have their own characteristics. The allocation of these areas is based on the specifics of socio-economic, cultural and ethnic development. The Arabian historical and ethnographic region is considered to be the cradle of the Arab world, the borders of which by no means coincide with the modern states of the Arabian Peninsula. This includes, for example, the eastern regions of Syria and Jordan. The second historical and ethnographic zone (or region) includes the rest of Syria, Jordan, as well as Lebanon and Palestine. Iraq is considered a separate historical and ethnographic zone. Egypt, Northern Sudan and Libya are united into one zone. And finally, the Maghrebino-Mauritanian zone, which includes the countries of the Maghreb - Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, as well as Mauritania and Western Sahara. This division is by no means universally recognized, since the border regions, as a rule, have features characteristic of both neighboring zones.
Economic activity
The agricultural culture of Arabia developed quite early, although only some parts of the peninsula were suitable for land use. These are, first of all, those territories on which the state of Yemen is now located, as well as some parts of the coast and oases. Petersburg orientalist O. Bolshakov believes that "in terms of the intensity of agriculture, Yemen can be put on a par with such ancient civilizations as Mesopotamia and Egypt" . The physical and geographical conditions of Arabia predetermined the division of the population into two groups - settled farmers and nomadic pastoralists. There was no clear division of the inhabitants of Arabia into settled and nomads, because there were various types of mixed economy, relations between which were maintained not only through commodity exchange, but also through family ties.
In the last quarter of the II millennium BC. the cattle breeders of the Syrian desert had a domesticated dromedary camel (dromedary). The number of camels was still small, but this already allowed part of the tribes to move on to a truly nomadic way of life. This circumstance forced pastoralists to lead a more mobile lifestyle and make many kilometers of transitions to remote areas, for example, from Syria to Mesopotamia, directly through the desert.
First state formations
On the territory of modern Yemen, several states arose, which in the 4th century AD. were united by one of them - the Himyarite kingdom. The South Arabian society of antiquity is characterized by the same features that are inherent in other societies. ancient east: the slave-owning system was born here, on which the wealth of the ruling class was based. The state carried out the construction and repair of large irrigation systems, without which it was impossible to develop agriculture. The population of the cities was mainly represented by artisans who skillfully made high-quality products, including agricultural implements, weapons, household utensils, leather goods, fabrics, and decorations from sea shells. Gold was mined in Yemen, and fragrant resins were also collected, including frankincense, myrrh. Later, the interest of Christians in this product constantly stimulated transit trade, due to which the interchange of goods between the Arabian Arabs and the population of the Christian regions of the Middle East expanded.
With the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom at the end of the 6th century by Sasanian Iran, horses appeared in Arabia. It was during this period that the state fell into decline, which affected primarily the urban population.
As for the nomads, such collisions affected them to a lesser extent. The life of the nomads was determined by the tribal structure, where there were dominant and subordinate tribes. Within the tribe, relations were regulated depending on the degree of kinship. The material existence of the tribe depended solely on the harvest in the oases, where there were cultivated plots of land and wells, as well as on the offspring of the herds. The main factor influencing the patriarchal life of the nomads, in addition to the attacks of unfriendly tribes, were natural disasters - drought, epidemics and earthquakes, which are mentioned by Arab legends.
The nomads of central and northern Arabia have long been raising sheep, cattle, and camels. Characteristically, the nomadic world of Arabia was surrounded by economically more developed regions, so there is no need to talk about the cultural isolation of Arabia. In particular, this is evidenced by the excavation data. For example, in the construction of dams and reservoirs, the inhabitants of southern Arabia used cement mortar, which was invented in Syria around 1200 BC. The presence of links that existed between the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast and southern Arabia as early as the 10th century BC confirms the story of the trip of the ruler of Saba (“Queen of Sheba”) to King Solomon.
Advance of Semites from Arabia
Approximately in the III millennium BC. Arabian Semites began to settle in Mesopotamia and Syria. Already from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. began an intensive movement of Arabs outside the "Jazirat al-Arab". However, those Arabian tribes that appeared in Mesopotamia in the 3rd-2nd millennia BC were soon assimilated by the Akkadians living there. Later, in the XIII century BC, a new advancement of the Semitic tribes began, who spoke Aramaic dialects. Already in the 7th-6th centuries BC. Aramaic becomes the spoken language of Syria, replacing Akkadian.
ancient Arabians
Back to top new era significant masses of Arabs moved to Mesopotamia, settled in southern Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula. Some tribes even managed to create state formations. So, the Nabataeans founded their kingdom on the border of Arabia and Palestine, which lasted until the 2nd century AD. Along the lower reaches of the Euphrates, the Lakhmid state arose, but its rulers were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Persian Sassanids. The Arabs who settled in Syria, Transjordan and southern Palestine united in the 6th century under the rule of representatives of the Ghassanid tribe. They also had to recognize themselves as vassals of the stronger Byzantium. It is characteristic that both the Lakhmid state (in 602) and the Ghassanid state (in 582) were destroyed by their own suzerains, who feared the strengthening and growing independence of their vassals. Nevertheless, the presence of Arab tribes in the Syrian-Palestinian region became a factor that subsequently contributed to softening the new, more massive invasion of the Arabs. Then they began to penetrate into Egypt. Thus, the city of Koptos in Upper Egypt, even before the Muslim conquest, was half inhabited by Arabs.
Naturally, the newcomers quickly joined the local customs. Caravan trade allowed them to maintain ties with kindred tribes and clans within the Arabian Peninsula, which gradually contributed to the convergence of urban and nomadic cultures.
Prerequisites for the unification of the Arabs
In the tribes living near the borders of Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, the process of decomposition of primitive communal relations developed faster than among the population of the interior regions of Arabia. In the 5th-7th centuries, there was an underdevelopment of the internal organization of the tribes, which, combined with the remnants of the maternal account and polyandry, testified that, due to the specifics of the nomadic economy, the decomposition of the tribal system in Central and Northern Arabia developed more slowly than in neighboring regions of Western Asia.
Periodically, kindred tribes united in unions. Sometimes there was a fragmentation of tribes or their absorption by strong tribes. Over time, it became obvious that large formations are more viable. It was in tribal unions or confederations of tribes that the preconditions for the emergence of a class society began to take shape. The process of its formation was accompanied by the creation of primitive state formations. As early as the 2nd-6th centuries, large tribal unions began to take shape (Mazhidj, Kinda, Maad, etc.), but none of them could become the core of a single pan-Arab state. The prerequisite for the political unification of Arabia was the desire of the tribal elite to secure the right to land, livestock and income from caravan trade. An additional factor was the need to join forces to resist external expansion. As we have already pointed out, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, the Persians captured Yemen and liquidated the Lakhmid state, which was in vassal dependence. As a result, in the south and north, Arabia was under the threat of absorption by the Persian state. Naturally, the situation had a negative impact on Arabian trade. The merchants of a number of Arabian cities suffered significant material damage. The only way out of this situation could be the unification of kindred tribes.
The Hejaz region, located in the west of the Arabian Peninsula, became the center of the unification of the Arabs. This area has long been famous for its relatively developed agriculture, handicrafts, but most importantly - trade. The local cities - Mecca, Yasrib (later Medina), Taif - had strong contacts with the surrounding tribes of nomads who visited them, exchanging their goods for the products of urban artisans.
However, the religious situation prevented the unification of the Arabian tribes. The ancient Arabs were pagans. Each tribe revered its patron god, although some of them can be considered pan-Arab - Allah, al-Uzza, al-Lat. Even in the first centuries in Arabia it was known about Judaism and Christianity. Moreover, in Yemen, these two religions have practically supplanted pagan cults. On the eve of the Persian conquest, Yemenite-Jews fought with Yemenite-Christians, while the Jews focused on Sasanian Persia (which subsequently facilitated the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom by the Persians), and Christians - on Byzantium. Under these conditions, its own form of Arabian monotheism arose, which (especially at an early stage) to a large extent, but in a peculiar way, reflected some of the postulates of Judaism and Christianity. Its adherents - hanifs - became carriers of the idea of a single god. In turn, this form of monotheism set the stage for the emergence of Islam.
The religious beliefs of the Arabs of the pre-Islamic period are a conglomeration of various beliefs, among which were female and male deities, the veneration of stones, springs, trees, various spirits, genies and shaitans, who were intermediaries between people and gods, was also widespread. Naturally, the absence of clear dogmatic ideas opened up wide opportunities for the ideas of more developed religions to penetrate into this amorphous worldview and contributed to religious and philosophical reflections.
By that time, writing began to become more widespread, which subsequently played a huge role in the formation of medieval Arab culture, and at the stage of the birth of Islam contributed to the accumulation and transmission of information. The need for this was colossal, as evidenced by the practice of oral memorization and reproduction of ancient genealogies, historical chronicles, poetic narratives, common among the Arabs.
As noted by the St. Petersburg scholar A. Khalidov, "most likely, the language developed as a result of a long development based on the selection of different dialectal forms and their artistic comprehension" . In the end, it was the use of the same language of poetry that became one of the most important factors that contributed to the formation of the Arab community. Naturally, the process of mastering the Arabic language did not occur at the same time. This process took place most rapidly in those areas where the inhabitants spoke the related languages of the Semitic group. In other areas, this process took several centuries, but a number of peoples, once under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, managed to maintain their linguistic independence.
Arab caliphs
Abu Bakr and Omar
Omar Ibn Khattab
Caliph Ali
Harun ar Rashid
Abd ar Rahman I
Arab Caliphate
The Arab caliphate is a theocratic state headed by a caliph. The core of the Caliphate arose on the Arabian Peninsula after the advent of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century. It was formed as a result of military campaigns in the middle of the 7th - beginning of the 9th century. and the conquest (with subsequent Islamization) of the peoples of the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and Southwestern Europe.
Abbasids, the second great dynasty of Arab caliphs
Caliphate conquests
Trade in the Caliphate
Arabic dirhams
In c.6 c. Arabia lost a number of territories - trade was disrupted.
Unification became necessary.
The unification of the Arabs was helped by the new religion of Islam.
Its founder, Mohammed, was born around 570 in a poor family. He married his former mistress and became a merchant.
Islam
The science
Arab army
applied arts
Bedouins
Bedouin tribes: At the head - the leader The custom of blood feuds Military skirmishes over pastures At the end of the VI century. - Arab trade disrupted.
The conquests of the Arabs - VII - n. 8th century A huge Arab state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the capital of Damascus.
The heyday of the Baghdad caliphate - the years of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (768-809).
In 732, as the chroniclers testified, the 400,000-strong army of the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. Later studies lead to the conclusion that the Arabs could have from 30 to 50 thousand warriors.
Not without the help of the Aquitanian and Burgundian nobility, who opposed the process of centralization in the kingdom of the Franks, the Arab army of Abd el-Rahman moved across Western Gaul, reached the center of Aquitaine, occupied Poitiers and headed for Tours. Here, on the old Roman road, at the crossing of the Vienne River, the Arabs were met by a 30,000-strong army of Franks, led by the mayor of the Carolingian family Pepin Karl, who had been the de facto ruler of the Frankish state since 715.
Even at the beginning of his reign, the Frankish state consisted of three long-separated parts: Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy. Royal power was purely nominal. This was not slow to take advantage of the enemies of the Franks. The Saxons invaded the Rhine regions, the Avars invaded Bavaria, and the Arab conquerors moved across the Pyrenees to the Laura River.
Karl had to pave his way to power with weapons in his hands. After the death of his father in 714, he was thrown into prison along with his stepmother Plektruda, from where he was able to escape the following year. By that time, he was already a fairly well-known military leader of the Franks of Austrasia, where he was popular among free peasants and medium landowners. They became his main support in the internecine struggle for power in the Frankish state.
Having established himself in Austrasia, Karl Pepin began to strengthen his position on the lands of the Franks by force of arms and diplomacy. After a bitter confrontation with his opponents in 715, he became the major of the Frankish state and ruled it on behalf of the infant king Theodoric IV. Having established himself at the royal throne, Charles began a series of military campaigns outside of Austrasia.
Charles, having gained the upper hand in battles over the feudal lords who tried to challenge his supreme power, in 719 won a brilliant victory over the Neustrians, led by one of his opponents, Major Ragenfrid, whose ally was the ruler of Aquitaine, Count Ed. At the Battle of Sausson, the Frankish ruler put the enemy army to flight. Having extradited Ragenfried, Count Ed managed to conclude a temporary peace with Charles. Soon the Franks occupied the cities of Paris and Orleans.
Then Karl remembered his sworn enemy - his stepmother Plectrude, who had her own large army. Starting a war with her, Karl forced his stepmother to surrender to him the rich and well-fortified city of Cologne on the banks of the Rhine.
In 725 and 728, Major Karl Pepin made two large military campaigns against the Bavarians and eventually subjugated them. This was followed by campaigns in Alemannia and Aquitaine, in Thuringia and Frisia ...
The basis of the combat power of the Frankish army until the battle of Poitiers was the infantry, which consisted of free peasants. At that time, all the men of the kingdom who were able to bear arms were liable for military service.
Organizationally, the Frankish army was divided into hundreds, or, in other words, into such a number of peasant households that in wartime could field one hundred foot soldiers in the militia. Peasant communities themselves regulated military service. Each Frankish warrior was armed and equipped at his own expense. The quality of weapons was checked at the reviews, which were conducted by the king or, on his behalf, military leaders-counts. If the warrior's weapon was in an unsatisfactory condition, then he was punished. There is a known case when the king killed a warrior during one of these reviews for the poor maintenance of personal weapons.
The national weapon of the Franks was the "francisca" - an ax with one or two blades, to which a rope was tied. The Franks deftly threw axes at the enemy at close range. For close hand-to-hand combat, they used swords. In addition to Francis and swords, the Franks were also armed with short spears - angons with teeth on a long and sharp tip. The teeth of the angon had the opposite direction and therefore it was very difficult to remove it from the wound. In battle, the warrior first threw angon, which pierced the enemy's shield, and then stepped on the shaft of the spear, thereby pulling back the shield and hitting the enemy with a heavy sword. Many warriors had bows and arrows, which were sometimes saturated with poison.
The only defensive armament of the Frankish warrior in the time of Karl Pepin was a shield of a round or oval shape. Only rich warriors had helmets and chain mail, since metal products cost a lot of money. Part of the armament of the Frankish army was military booty.
In European history, the Frankish commander Karl Pepin became famous primarily for his successful wars against the Arab conquerors, for which he received the nickname "Martell", which means "hammer".
In 720, the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded what is now France. The Arab army took the well-fortified Narbonne by storm and laid siege to the large city of Toulouse. Count Ed was defeated, and he had to seek refuge in Austrasia with the remnants of his army.
Very soon, the Arab cavalry appeared on the fields of Septimania and Burgundy and even reached the left bank of the Rhone River, entering the lands of the Franks. Thus, for the first time, a major clash between the Muslim and Christian worlds matured on the fields of Western Europe. The Arab commanders, having crossed the Pyrenees, had big conquest plans in Europe.
We must pay tribute to Charles - he immediately understood the danger of the Arab invasion. After all, the Moorish Arabs by that time had managed to conquer almost all the Spanish regions. Their troops were constantly replenished with new forces that came through the Strait of Gibraltar from the Maghreb - North Africa, from the territory of modern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Arab commanders were famous for their martial arts, and their warriors were excellent riders and archers. The Arab army was partially staffed by North African Berber nomads, for which in Spain the Arabs were called Moors.
Charles Pepin, having interrupted the military campaign in the upper reaches of the Danube, in 732 gathered a large militia of Austrasians, Neustrians and Rhine tribes. By that time, the Arabs had already plundered the city of Bordeaux, captured the fortress city of Poitiers and moved towards Tours.
The Frankish commander resolutely moved towards the Arab army, trying to prevent its appearance in front of the fortress walls of Tours. He already knew that the Arabs were commanded by the experienced Abd el-Rahman and that his army was much superior to the militia of the Franks, which, according to the same European chroniclers, numbered only 30 thousand soldiers.
At the point where the old Roman road crossed the river Vienne, across which a bridge had been built, the Franks and their allies barred the Arab army from reaching Tours. Nearby was the city of Poitiers, after which the battle was named, which took place on October 4, 732 and lasted several days: according to Arabic chronicles - two, according to Christian ones - seven days.
Knowing that the enemy army was dominated by light cavalry and many archers, Major Karl Pepin decided to give the Arabs, who adhered to active offensive tactics on the fields of Europe, a defensive battle. Moreover, the hilly terrain made it difficult for large masses of cavalry to operate. The Frankish army was built for the battle between the rivers Clen and Vienne, which, with their banks, well covered his flanks. The basis of the battle formation was the infantry, built in a dense phalanx. The cavalry, heavily armed in a knightly manner, was stationed on the flanks. The right flank was commanded by Count Ed.
Usually, the Franks lined up for battle in dense battle formations, a kind of phalanx, but without proper support for the flanks and rear, trying to solve everything with one blow, a general breakthrough or a swift attack. They, like the Arabs, had a well-developed mutual assistance based on family ties.
Approaching the river Vienne, the Arab army, not immediately getting involved in the battle, spread their camp not far from the Franks. Abd el-Rahman immediately realized that the enemy was in a very strong position and it was impossible to cover him with light cavalry from the flanks. The Arabs did not dare to attack the enemy for several days, waiting for an opportunity to strike. Karl Pepin did not move, patiently waiting for an enemy attack.
In the end, the Arab leader decided to start the battle and built his army in a fighting, dissected order. It consisted of battle lines familiar to Arabs: horse archers made up the “Morning of the Barking Dog”, then came the “Day of Help”, “Evening of Shock”, “Al-Ansari” and “Al-Mugadzheri”. The reserve of the Arabs, intended for the development of victory, was under the personal command of Abd el-Rahman and was called the "Banner of the Prophet."
The battle of Poitiers began with the shelling of the Frankish phalanx by Arab horse archers, to which the enemy responded with crossbows and longbows. After that, the Arab cavalry attacked the positions of the Franks. The Frankish infantry successfully repulsed attack after attack, the enemy's light cavalry could not break through their dense formation.
A Spanish chronicler contemporary with the Battle of Poitiers wrote that the Franks "stood close together, as far as the eye could see, like an immovable and icy wall, and fought fiercely, hitting the Arabs with swords."
After the Frankish infantry repulsed all the attacks of the Arabs, which, line by line, rolled back to their original positions in some disorder, Karl Pepin immediately ordered the knightly cavalry, which was still inactive, to launch a counterattack in the direction of the enemy camp located behind the right flank of the battle formation of the Arab army .
Meanwhile, the Frankish knights, led by Ed of Aquitaine, delivered two ram attacks from the flanks, overturning the light cavalry opposing them, rushed to the Arab camp and captured it. The Arabs, demoralized by the news of the death of their leader, could not hold back the onslaught of the enemy and fled from the battlefield. The Franks pursued them and inflicted considerable damage. This ended the battle near Poitiers.
This battle had extremely important consequences. The victory of Majordom Karl Pepin put an end to the further advancement of the Arabs in Europe. After the defeat at Poitiers, the Arab army, hiding behind detachments of light cavalry, left French territory and, without further combat losses, went through the mountains to Spain.
But before the Arabs finally left the south of modern France, Karl Pepin inflicted another defeat on the Berre River south of the city of Narbonne. True, this battle was not among the decisive ones.
The victory over the Arabs glorified the commander of the Franks. Since then, they began to call him Karl Martell (i.e., war hammer).
Usually little is said about this, but the battle of Poitiers is also known for being one of the first battles when numerous heavy knightly cavalry entered the battlefield. It was she who, with her blow, provided the Franks with a complete victory over the Arabs. Now not only riders, but also horses were covered with metal armor.
After the battle of Poitiers, Charles Martel won several more great victories, conquering Burgundy and regions in southern France, up to Marseilles.
Charles Martell significantly strengthened the military power of the Frankish kingdom. However, he stood only at the origins of the true historical greatness of the state of the Franks, which will be created by his grandson Charlemagne, who reached the highest power and became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
Arab army
Hamdanid army X - XI centuries.
Late Fatimid army (11th century)
Ghaznavid army (late 10th - early 11th centuries): Ghaznavid palace guard. Karakhanid equestrian warrior in full dress. Indian mounted mercenary.
ancient arabia
City of Petra
The cistern of the Genies in Petra, with a hole at the bottom
Monument of the Serpent in Petra
Obelisk (top) next to the altar (bottom), Petra
Nabataean sundial from Hegra (Museum of the Ancient East, Archaeological Museum of Istanbul
Literature during the Caliphate
Thousand and One Nights
Islamic script
Applied art of the Arabs
Bronze candlestick with silver inlay. 1238. Master Daoud ibn Salam from Mosul. Museum of Decorative Arts. Paris.
Glass vessel with enamel painting. Syria. 1300. British Museum. London.
Dish with luster painting. Egypt. 11th c. Museum of Islamic Art. Cairo.
Sculptural ceiling in the Khirbet al-Mafjar castle. 8th c. jordan
Jug with the name of Caliph al-Aziz Billah. Rhinestone. 10th c. Treasury of San Marco. Venice.
Arabic architecture
Architecture at Almoravids and Almohads
The Almohad tower and the Renaissance bell section merge into one harmonious whole at La Giralda Campanile, Seville
Almoravides invaded al-Andalus from North Africa in 1086 and united the taifas under their rule. They developed their own architecture, but very few examples of it survive, due to the next invasion, by the now Almohads, who imposed Islamic ultra-orthodoxy and destroyed nearly every significant Almoravid building, including Madinah al-Zahra and other caliphate structures. Their art was extremely austere and simple, and they used brick as their main building material. In a literal sense, their only external decoration, the "sebka", is based on a grid of rhombuses. The Almohads also used palm-pattern ornaments, but these were little more than a simplification of the much more luxuriant Almoravid palms. As time went on, the art became a little more decorative. The most famous example of Almohad architecture is the Giralda, the former minaret of the mosque of Seville. Considered a Mudejar style, but this style is absorbed into the Almohad aesthetic here, the Santa Maria la Blanca synagogue in Toledo is a rare example of the architectural collaboration of the three cultures of medieval Spain.
Umayyad dynasty
dome of the rock
Umayyad Grand Mosque, Syria, Damascus (705-712)
Mosque Tunisia XIII century.
Arab invasion of Byzantium
Arab-Byzantine Wars
the entire period of the Arab-Byzantine wars can be divided (roughly) into 3 parts:
I. Weakening of Byzantium, offensive of the Arabs (634-717)
II. Period of relative calm (718 - middle of the 9th century)
III. Counteroffensive of Byzantium (late 9th century - 1069)
Main events:
634-639 - Arab conquest of Syria and Palestine with Jerusalem;
639-642 - campaign of Amr ibn al-As to Egypt. The Arabs conquered this populous and fertile country;
647-648 - Construction of the Arab fleet. Capture of Tripolitania and Cyprus by the Arabs;
684-678 - First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. Ended unsuccessfully;
698 - the capture of the African Exarchate (belonging to Byzantium) by the Arabs;
717-718 - Second siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. It ended unsuccessfully. Arab expansion in Asia Minor was halted;
IX-X centuries - Arabs capture the southern Italian territories of Byzantium (the island of Sicily);
X century - Byzantium goes on a counteroffensive and conquers part of Syria from the Arabs, and in particular such an important outpost as Antioch. The Byzantine army at that time even put Jerusalem in immediate danger. The Arab Sultanate of Aleppo recognized itself as a Byzantine vassal. At that time, Crete and Cyprus were also reconquered.
Rise of the Caliphate of Baghdad under Haroun-ar-Rashid
Arabic culture
Caliphate of Baghdad
Architecture of Baghdad
In Baghdad, there was a kind of intellectual center of the Islamic Golden Age - the House of Wisdom. It included a huge library, a huge number of translators and scribes worked in it. The best scientists of their time gathered in the House. thanks to the accumulated works of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Euclid, Galen, research was carried out in the field of the humanities, Islam, astronomy and mathematics, medicine and chemistry, alchemy, zoology and geography.
This greatest treasury of the best works of antiquity and modernity was destroyed in 1258. It, along with other libraries in Baghdad, was destroyed by the Mongol troops after the capture of the city. Books were thrown into the river, and the water remained colored with their ink for many months ...
Almost everyone has heard about the burned-out Library of Alexandria, but for some reason, few people remember the lost House of Wisdom...
Fortress Tower Talisman in Baghdad.
Necropolis Shakhi Zinda
The emergence of the Shakhi-Zindan memorial on the slope of the Afrasiab hill is associated with the name of Kusam ibn Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he participated in the first campaigns of the Arabs in Maverannahr. According to legend, Kusam was mortally wounded near the walls of Samarkand and took refuge underground, where he continues to live. Hence the name of the memorial Shakhi-Zindan, which means "The Living King". By the X-XI centuries. the martyr of the faith Kusam ibn Abbas acquired the status of an Islamic saint, the patron saint of Samarkand, and in the XII-XV centuries. Along the path leading to his mausoleums and funeral mosques, their exquisite beauty, as it were, denies death.
On the northern outskirts of Samarkand, on the edge of the Afrasiab hill, among the vast ancient cemetery, there are groups of mausoleums, among which the grave attributed to Kussam, the son of Abbas, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad, is the most famous. According to Arabic sources, Kussam came to Samarkand in 676. According to some sources, he was killed, according to others, he died of natural causes; according to some reports, he died not even in Samarkand, but in Merv. The imaginary or real grave of Kussam under his Abbasid relatives (VIII century), perhaps not without their participation, became the object of the Muslim cult. Among the people, Kussam became known as Shah-i Zinda - "The Living King". According to legend, Kussam left the earthly world alive and continues to live in the “other world”. Hence the nickname "The Living King".
Mausoleum of Zimurrud Khatun in Baghdad
Conquest of Spain
At the end of the 7th century AD. Arabs after long wars expelled the Byzantines from North Africa. Once the land of Africa was a battlefield between Rome and Carthage, it gave the world such great commanders as Jugurtha and Masinissa, and now it has passed into the hands of Muslims, albeit with difficulty. After this conquest, the Arabs set out to conquer Spain.
They were driven to this not only by the love of conquest and the dream of expanding the Islamic State. The locals of North Africa - the Berber tribes - were very brave, warlike, violent and temperamental. The Arabs feared that after some time of calm, the Berbers would set out to avenge the defeats, raise an uprising and then the Arabs would miss the victory. Therefore, the Arabs, having aroused interest among the Berbers in the conquest of Spain, wanted to distract them from this and extinguish their thirst for bloodshed and revenge by war. As Ibn-Khaldun notes, it is not surprising that the Muslim army, which was the first to cross the Jabalitarik Strait and entered Spanish soil, could be said to have consisted entirely of Berbers.
From ancient history it is known that the main inhabitants of Spain were the Celts, Iberians and Ligors. The peninsula was divided into territories that once belonged to Phenicia, Carthage and Rome. After the conquest of Spain, the Carthaginians built the majestic city of Carthage here. Around 200 BC. in the Punic Wars, Rome defeated Carthage, took possession of these fertile lands, and up to the B century AD. dominated these lands. At this time, from Spain, which was considered the most important and flourishing place of the empire, came such great thinkers as Seneca, Lucan, Marsial and such famous emperors as Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Theodosius.
Just as the prosperity of Rome created the conditions for the progress of Spain, so the fall of this city led to the decline of Spain. The peninsula once again became the scene of battles. At the beginning of the B century, the tribes of the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, who destroyed Rome and France, also devastated Spain. However, soon the tribes of the Goths expelled them from the peninsula and took possession of Spain. From the YOU century until the attack of the Arabs, the Goths were the dominant force in Spain.
Soon the Goths mixed with the local population - the Latin peoples, and adopted the Latin language and Christianity. It is known that before the XNUMXth century, the Goths prevailed among the Christian population of Spain. When the Arabs expelled them towards the Asturian mountains, the Goths, thanks to mixing with the local population, were again able to maintain their superiority. For example, among the Christian population of Spain, it was considered pride to be a descendant of the Goths and to bear the nickname "son of the Goths."
A little earlier, before the conquest of the Arabs, the nobility of the Goths and the Latin peoples united and created an aristocratic government. This association, engaged in the oppression of the oppressed masses, has gained the hatred of the people. And it is natural that this state, built on money and wealth, could not be strong and could not adequately defend itself from the enemy.
Also, the appointment of the ruler by election led to eternal strife and enmity for power between the nobility. This enmity and wars eventually hastened the weakening of the Gothic state.
General strife, internal wars, people's dissatisfaction with the local government and for this reason a weak rebuff to the Arabs, the lack of loyalty and the spirit of self-sacrifice in the army, and other reasons ensured an easy victory for the Muslims. It even came to the point that because of the above reasons, the Andalusian ruler Julian and the Bishop of Seville were not afraid to help the Arabs.
In 711, Musa ibn Nasir, who was the governor of North Africa under the rule of the Umayyad caliph Walid ibn Abdulmelik, sent a 12,000-strong army formed from Berbers to conquer Spain. The army was led by a Berber Muslim Tarig ibn Ziyad. The Muslims crossed the Jabalut-tarig strait, which got its name from the name of this famous commander Tariq, and entered the Iberian Peninsula. The wealth of this land, its clean air, delightful nature and its mysterious cities so impressed the conquering army that in a letter to the Caliph Tarig wrote: “These places are similar to Syria in terms of air purity, similar to Yemen in temperate climate, similar to vegetation and incense. India, in terms of fertility and abundance of crops, are similar to China, in terms of the availability of ports, they are similar to Adena.
The Arabs, who spent half a century conquering the coastline of North Africa and met with fierce resistance from the Berbers, expected to face a similar situation when they conquered Spain. However, contrary to expectations, Spain was conquered in a short time, in just a few months. The Muslims defeated the Goths in the first battle. In this battle they were assisted by the Bishop of Seville. As a result, having broken the resistance of the Goths, the coastal zone passed into the hands of the Muslims.
Seeing the success of Tarig ibn Ziyad, Mussa ibn Nasir gathered an army consisting of 12 thousand Arabs and 8 thousand Berbers and moved to Spain in order to be a partner in success.
Throughout its journey, the Muslim army can be said not to have met a single serious resistance. The people dissatisfied with the government and the nobility, torn by strife, voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and even sometimes joined them. Such Largest cities Spain like Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Toledo surrendered without resistance. In the city of Toledo, which was the capital, 25 valuable crowns of Gothic rulers, decorated with various precious stones. The wife of the Gothic king Rodrigue was captured and the son of Musa ibn Nasir married her.
In the eyes of the Arabs, the Spaniards were on a par with the populations of Syria and Egypt. The laws observed in the conquered countries were also enforced here. The conquerors did not touch the property and temples of the local population, local customs and orders remained the same as before. The Spaniards were allowed to turn to their judges in contentious matters, to obey the decisions of their own courts. In return for all this, the population was obliged to pay a meager tax (jizya) for those times. The amount of tax for the nobility and the rich was set at the limit of one dinar (15 francs), and for the poor half a dinar. That is why the poor, driven to despair by the oppression of local rulers and countless dues, voluntarily surrendered to Muslims, and even by converting to Islam, were exempted from taxes. Despite the fact that in some places there were isolated cases of resistance, they were quickly suppressed.
As historians write, after the conquest of Spain, Musa ibn Nasir intended to reach Constantinople (present-day Istanbul; at that time Constantinople was the capital of the great Byzantine Empire), passing through France and Germany. However, the caliph called him to Damascus and the plan remained unfinished. If Moussa could carry out his intention, could conquer Europe, then at present the divided peoples would be under the flag of a single religion. Along with this, Europe would be able to avoid medieval darkness and medieval, terrible tragedies.
Everyone knows that when Europe groaned in the clutches of ignorance, fratricide, epidemics, senseless crusades, the Inquisition, Spain under the rule of the Arabs prospered, lived a comfortable life and was at the peak of its development. Spain shone in the darkness. In Spain, excellent conditions were created for the development of science and culture, and it owes this to Islam.
In order to determine the role of Arabs in the political, economic and cultural life of Spain, it would be more appropriate to consider the ratio of their total number.
As mentioned above, the first Muslim army that entered the Iberian Peninsula consisted of Arabs and
Berbers. Subsequent military units consisted of representatives of the population of Syria. It is known from history that in the early Middle Ages in Spain, the leadership of science and culture belonged to the Arabs, and the Berbers were subordinate to them. The Arabs were considered the highest stratum of the population (ashraf), and the Berbers and the local population were considered a secondary and tertiary stratum of the population. Interestingly, even when the Berber dynasties were able to gain power in Spain, the Arabs managed to maintain their dominance.
As for the total number of Arabs, there is no exact data on this matter. One can only assume that after the Emirate of Cordoba separated from the Arab Emirate, the Arabs became isolated from the rest of the countries. However, due to the rapid growth and emigration from North Africa, the Berbers increased in number and gained supremacy in power.
Muslims mixed with the local Christian population of Spain. According to historians, in the very first years of the conquest of Spain, the Arabs married 30,000 Christian women and brought them into their harem (the harem in the Sibyl fortress, nicknamed the "room of girls", is a historical monument). In addition, at the beginning of the conquest, some of the nobility, in order to show their devotion to the Arabs, annually sent 100 Christian girls to the Caliph's palace. Among the women with whom the Arabs entered into marriage were girls from Latin, Iberian, Greek, Gothic and other tribes. It is clear that as a result of such mass mixing, a new generation arose in a few decades, radically different from the conquerors of the 700s.
From 711 (the date of the conquest of Spain) to 756, this area was subject to the Umayyad Caliphate. An emir appointed by the Umayyad caliph ruled over this territory. In 756, Spain seceded from the Caliphate and became independent. It became known as the Caliphate of Cordoba, whose capital was the city of Cordoba.
After 300 years had elapsed since the reign of the Arabs in Spain, their magnificent and glorious star began to fade. The strife that engulfed the Cordoba caliphate shook the power of the state. At this time, Christians living in the north took advantage of this chance and began to attack in order to take revenge.
The struggle of Christians for the return of the lands conquered by the Arabs (in Spanish: reconquista) intensified in the 10th century. In the Asturian region, where the Christians expelled from the Spanish lands concentrated, the Kingdom of Lyon and Castile arose. In the middle of the 11th century, both these kingdoms united. At the same time, the Navarrese, Catalan and Aragonese states, having united, created a new Aragonese kingdom. At the end of the 11th century, a Portuguese county arose in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. Soon this county also turned into a kingdom. Thus, at the end of the XNUMXth century, serious Christian rivals of the Caliphate of Cordoba began to appear on the Spanish map.
In 1085, as a result of a powerful attack, the northerners captured the city of Toledo. The leader of the northerners was the king of Castile and Leon, Alphonse VI. The Spanish Muslims, seeing that they could not resist on their own, asked the Berbers of North Africa for help. The al-Murabit dynasty, having established itself in Tunisia and Morocco, entered Spain and tried to resurrect the Caliphate of Cordoba. Al-Murabits in 1086 defeated Alphonse VI, and were temporarily able to stop the movement of the reconquista. In just half a century, they lost to a new dynasty that entered the political arena - al-Muwahhids. Having seized power in North Africa, the al-Muwahhids attacked Spain and subjugated the Muslim regions. However, this state was unable to properly resist the Christians. Despite the fact that they decorated their palaces with such prominent personalities as Ibn Tufeil, Ibn Rushd, the al-Muwahhids became helpless before the reconquista. In 1212, near the town of Las Navas de Tolosa, the united Christian army defeated them, and the al-Muwahhid dynasty was forced to leave Spain.
The Spanish kings, who did not get along with each other, put aside the enmity, and united against the Arabs. The reconquista movement directed against the Muslims involved the combined forces of the Castilian, Aragonese, Navarre and Portuguese kingdoms. In 1236, the Muslims lost Cordoba, in 1248 Seville, in 1229-35 the Balearic Islands, in 1238 Valencia. Capturing the city of Cadiz in 1262, the Spaniards reached the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.
Only the Emirate of Grenada remained in the hands of the Muslims. At the end of the 13th century, Ibn al-Ahmar, nicknamed Muhammad al-Ghalib, who was from the Nasrid dynasty, retreated to the city of Granada, and fortified the fortress of Alhambra (al-Hamra) here. He was able to maintain his relative independence, subject to the payment of tribute to the King of Castile. In the palace of the Grenada emirs, who were able to defend their independence for two centuries, such thinkers as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib served.
In 1469, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile. The Aragonese-Castilian kingdom united all of Spain. The Grenada emirs refused to pay tribute to them. In 1492, Grenada fell to a powerful onslaught of the Spaniards. The last Muslim fort in the Iberian Peninsula was captured. And with this, all of Spain was conquered from the Arabs and the reconquista movement ended with the victory of the Christians.
The Muslims gave up Grenada on the condition that their religion, language and property be inviolable. But,
soon Ferdinand II broke his promise, and a wave of mass persecution and oppression began against the Muslims. At first they were forced to accept Christianity. Those who did not want to accept Christianity were brought to the terrible court of the Inquisition. Those who changed religion in order to escape torture soon realized that they had been deceived. The Inquisition declared the new Christians to be insincere and dubious, and began to burn them at the stake. At the instigation of the church leadership, hundreds of thousands of Muslims were killed: old people, young people, women, men. A monk of the Dominican order Belida offered to destroy all Muslims, young and old. He said that one cannot show mercy even to those who converted to Christianity, because their sincerity is in question: “If we do not know what is in their hearts, then we must kill them so that the Lord God will draw them to his own judgment” . The priests liked the proposal of this monk, but the Spanish government, fearing the Muslim states, did not approve this proposal.
In 1610, the Spanish government demanded that all Muslims leave the country. The Arabs, who remained in a hopeless situation, began to move. Within a few months, more than a million Muslims left Spain. From 1492 to 1610, as a result of massacres directed against Muslims and their emigration, the population of Spain decreased to three million people. Worst of all, Muslims leaving the country were attacked by local residents, as a result of which many Muslims were killed. The monk of Belida happily reported that three-quarters of the Muslims who migrated died on the way. The mentioned monk himself personally participated in the murder of one hundred thousand people who were part of the 140 thousandth caravan of Muslims heading towards Africa. Truly, the bloody crimes committed in Spain against the Muslims leave the night of St. Bartholomew in the shade.
The Arabs, having entered Spain, which was very far from culture, raised it to the highest point of civilization, and ruled here for eight centuries. With the departure of the Arabs, Spain underwent a terrible decline and for a long time could not eliminate this decline. Having expelled the Arabs, Spain lost highly developed agriculture, trade and art, science and literature, as well as three million people of science and culture. Once the population of Cordoba was one million people, and now only 300 thousand people live here. Under Muslim rule, the population of the city of Toledo was 200 thousand people, and now less than 50 thousand people live here. Thus, it is safe to say that despite the fact that the Spaniards defeated the Arabs in the war, abandoning the great Islamic civilization, they plunged themselves into the abyss of ignorance and backwardness.
(The article used the book of Gustave le Bon "Islam and Arab Civilization")
Arab capture of Khorezm
The first Arab raids on Khorezm date back to the 7th century. In 712, Khorezm was conquered by the Arab commander Kuteiba ibn Muslim, who inflicted cruel reprisals on the Khorezmian aristocracy. Kuteiba brought down especially cruel repressions on the scientists of Khorezm. As al-Biruni writes in the Chronicles of Past Generations, “and by all means Kuteyb scattered and destroyed everyone who knew the writing of the Khorezmians, who kept their traditions, all the scientists that were among them, so that all this was covered with darkness and there is no true knowledge about what was known of their history before the establishment of Islam by the Arabs.
Arabic sources say almost nothing about Khorezm in the following decades. On the other hand, it is known from Chinese sources that Khorezmshah Shaushafar sent an embassy to China in 751, which was at war with the Arabs at that time. During this period, a short-term political unification of Khorezm and Khazaria took place. Nothing is known about the circumstances of the restoration of Arab sovereignty over Khorezm. In any case, only at the very end of the VIII century. the grandson of Shaushafar takes the Arabic name of Abdallah and mints the names of the Arab governors on his coins.
In the 10th century, a new flowering of urban life in Khorezm began. Arab sources paint a picture of the exceptional economic activity of Khorezm in the 10th century, and the surrounding steppes of Turkmenistan and western Kazakhstan, as well as the Volga region - Khazaria and Bulgaria, and the vast Slavic world of Eastern Europe become the arena for the activity of Khorezm merchants. The growing role of trade with Eastern Europe put forward the city of Urgench (now Kunya-Urgench) [specify], which became the natural center of this trade, to the first place in Khorezm. In 995, the last Afrigid, Abu-Abdallah Muhammad, was captured and killed by the emir of Urgench, Mamun ibn-Muhammad. Khorezm was united under the rule of Urgench.
Khorezm in this era was a city of high learning. Natives of Khorezm were such outstanding scientists as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Iraq, Abu Reihan al-Biruni, al-Chagmini.
In 1017, Khorezm was subordinated to Sultan Mahmud Gaznevi, and in 1043 it was conquered by the Seljuk Turks.
Arabshahid dynasty
The real name of this country since ancient times was Khorezm. The khanate was founded by nomadic Uzbek tribes who captured Khorezm in 1511, under the leadership of the sultans Ilbars and Balbars, descendants of Yadigar Khan. They belonged to the Genghisid branch, descended from Arab-shah-ibn-Pilade, a descendant of Shiban in the 9th generation, so the dynasty is usually called Arabshahids. Shiban in turn was the fifth son of Jochi.
The Arabshahids, as a rule, were at enmity with another branch of the Shibanids, who at the same time settled in Maverannahr after the captures of Shaibani Khan; the Uzbeks, who occupied Khorezm in 1511, did not participate in the campaigns of Shaibani Khan.
The Arabshahids adhered to steppe traditions, dividing the khanate into estates according to the number of men (sultans) in the dynasty. The supreme ruler, the Khan, was the eldest in the family and chosen by the council of sultans. During almost the entire 16th century, Urgench was the capital. Khiva became the residence of the khan for the first time in 1557-58. (for one year) and only during the reign of Arab-Mohammed-Khan (1603-1622) Khiva became the capital. In the 16th century, the khanate included, in addition to Khorezm, oases in the north of Khorasan and Turkmen tribes in the sands of Kara-Kum. The possessions of the sultans often included areas in both Khorezm and Khorasan. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the khanate was a loose confederation of virtually independent sultanates, under the nominal authority of the khan.
Already before the arrival of the Uzbeks, Khorezm lost its cultural significance due to the destruction caused by Timur in the 1380s. A significant settled population survived only in the southern part of the country. Much of the formerly irrigated land, especially in the north, was abandoned and urban culture was in decline. The economic weakness of the khanate was reflected by the fact that it did not have its own money and Bukhara coins were used until the end of the 18th century. Under such conditions, the Uzbeks were able to maintain their nomadic way of life longer than their southern neighbors. They were the military class in the khanate, and the settled Sarts (descendants of the local Tajik population) were taxpayers. The authority of the khan and the sultans depended on the military support of the Uzbek tribes; to reduce this dependency, the khans often hired Turkmens, resulting in the role of Turkmens in political life The khanate grew and they began to settle in Khorezm. Relations between the Khanate and the Sheibanids in Bukhara were generally hostile, the Arabshahids frequently allied with Safavid Iran against their Uzbek neighbors and on three occasions; in 1538, 1593 and 1595-1598. The khanate was occupied by the Sheibanids. By the end of the 16th century, after a series of internal wars in which most of the Arabshahids were killed, the system of dividing the khanate between the sultans was abolished. Shortly thereafter, at the beginning of the 17th century, Iran occupied the lands of the Khanate in Khorasan.
The reigns of the famous historian khan Abu-l-Gazi (1643-1663) and his son and successor Anush Khan were periods of relative political stability and economic progress. Large-scale irrigation works were undertaken, and new irrigated lands were divided among the Uzbek tribes; who became more and more sedentary. However, the country was still poor, and the khans filled their empty treasury with booty from predatory raids against their neighbors. From that time until the middle of the 19th century, the country was, in the words of historians, a "predatory state."
Culture in Spain during the Caliphate
Alhambra - the pearl of Arabic art
Tiles from the Alhambra. 14th century National Archaeological Museum, Madrid.
Arab harems
The Eastern harem is the secret dream of men and the personified curse of women, the focus of sensual pleasures and the exquisite boredom of beautiful concubines languishing in it. All this is nothing more than a myth created by the talent of novelists. A real harem is more pragmatic and sophisticated, like everything that was an integral part of the life and life of the Arab people.
The traditional harem (from the Arabic "haram" - forbidden) is primarily the female half of the Muslim home. Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem." Harem - the realm of luxury and lost hopes ...
Haram - Forbidden Territory
In early Islamic times, the traditional inhabitants of the harem were the wives and daughters of the head of the family and his sons. Depending on the wealth of the Arab, slaves could live in the harem, whose main task was the harem economy and all the hard work associated with it.
The institution of concubines appeared much later, during the time of the Caliphates and their conquests, when the number of beautiful women became an indicator of wealth and power, and the law introduced by the Prophet Muhammad, which did not allow having more than four wives, significantly limited the possibilities of polygamy.
In order to cross the threshold of the seraglio, the slave went through a kind of initiation ceremony. In addition to checking for innocence, the girl had to convert to Islam without fail.
Entering the harem was in many ways reminiscent of being tonsured as a nun, where instead of selfless service to God, no less selfless service to the master was instilled. Candidates for concubines, like God's brides, were forced to break all ties with outside world, received new names and learned to live in humility. In later harems, wives were absent as such. The main source of a privileged position was the attention of the Sultan and childbearing. Showing attention to one of the concubines, the owner of the harem elevated her to the rank of a temporary wife. This situation was most often shaky and could change at any moment depending on the mood of the master. The most reliable way to gain a foothold in the status of a wife was the birth of a boy. A concubine who gave her master a son acquired the status of mistress.
Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem."
In addition to the old proven slaves, eunuchs followed the concubines. Translated from Greek, "eunuch" means "guardian of the bed." They got into the harem exclusively in the form of guards, so to speak, to maintain order.
