Geographic location, EGP, climate, population, economy, natural resources, history of Sudan. Full description of Sudan Geographical location of the country Sudan

The official name is The Republic of the Sudan.

Located in northeast Africa. The area is 2506 thousand km2, the population is 35.1 million people. (2002). The official language is Arabic. The capital is Khartoum (3 million people, 2002). National holiday - Independence Day on January 1 (since 1956). The National Salvation Revolution Day, June 30 (since 1989), is also celebrated as a public holiday. The monetary unit is the Sudanese dinar (equal to 10 pounds or 100 piastres).

Member of the UN (since 1956), AU (since 1963), Arab League (since 1956).

Sights of Sudan

Geography of Sudan

It is located between 15°36'N and 32°33'E. Washed by the waters of the Red Sea. The length of the coastline is 853 km. Coast - a narrow strip of coastal lowland, which is adjacent to the mountains. It borders Egypt to the north, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, and the Central African Republic, Chad and Libya to the west.

Sudan is divided into three physical and geographical regions: desert in the north, most of which is occupied by the sandy Libyan and sandy-stony Nubian deserts (about 30% of the territory); a vast semi-arid region of steppes and low mountains in the centre; vast marshes and jungles in the south of the country. In the west - the Darfur and Kordofan plateaus with separate mountains and massifs (Mount Marra in Darfur - 3088 m). In the east - the spurs of the Ethiopian highlands (Habesh). In the northeast - the Red Sea Mountains. The highest point in Sudan is Mount Kineti (3187 m), located in the south near the border with Uganda.

The bowels of Sudan contain reserves of oil, natural gas, iron ore, copper, tin, zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, chromium, manganese, gold, silver, uranium, marble, asbestos, graphite, gypsum.

In the north and in a number of areas in the west, the soil cover is poorly developed. In the south, red ferralitic and alferritic soils of tall grass savannahs predominate, to the north - red-brown soils of desert savannahs. In the interfluve of the Blue and White Nile (Gezira region) - heavy dark-colored soils. There are also fused tropical hydromorphic and alluvial soils. The northern half of Sudan lies in a semi-desert and desert zone, almost devoid of vegetation. The southern half of the country is mostly savanna, tall grass. Among the plants, besides herbs, are the baobab, numerous acacias, among which are species that produce gum arabic. There are also tropical forests in the south. In some southern and mountainous areas in tropical forests, two types of coffee tree are found, tree-like spurge, heglic soap tree, etc.

In the northern part, the climate is tropical desert. Average monthly temperatures are from +30-35°С to +15-20°С. In summer, the thermometer rises to +43°C. There is very little precipitation - less than 200 mm. In the south, the climate is tropical equatorial monsoons. Average monthly temperatures are +23-30°C. The annual amount of precipitation falling in the summer months is 500-1400 mm. In the central part of Sudan, the climate has a transitional character. On the eve of the rainy season - the highest temperatures and often dust storms (habub).

The only river system in Sudan is the Nile, which crosses the country from south to north. The Nile is formed from the confluence of two tributaries - the White and Blue Nile in the Khartoum region. The Blue Nile flows out of Lake Tana in Ethiopia. Its length in Sudan is 800 km. The White Nile originates in Tanzania. On the territory of Sudan from the border with Uganda to the city of Malakal, where the Al-Ghazal tributary flows into it, it is called Bahr al-Jebel (sea of ​​mountains). This is due to the fact that with access to the plain in the south, the White Nile enters the swamp area, and during the summer rainy season, the flood increases the area occupied by water to 60 thousand km2. A tributary of the Atbara flows into the Nile 320 km to the north.

Groundwater is not very deep. Their presence is very important for the economy and life of the population in a hot climate.

Many animals are found in the southern tropical regions of Sudan. There are elephants, crocodiles, hippos, giraffes, leopards, lions, various monkeys, poisonous snakes, several species of tropical birds.

Population of Sudan

Sudan is characterized by high population growth, both for the northern and southern provinces - 2.6-3.2% per year. Over the past 40 years, the population has almost tripled, and the urban population by 7.5 times. Birth rate 38.6%, mortality 10.2%. The average life expectancy for men is 56 years, for women 58 years (2001).
The ratio of men and women in the entire population is 0.99. Urban population 31% (1999). Population density 14 people. per 1 km2 (2002).

According to the ethnic composition, more than 1/2 of the country's population are Arabs, 30% are Negroid tribes inhabiting the southern regions of the country, 6% are Beja tribes, 6% are Nuba tribes. In total, there are more than 570 tribes in Sudan.

Arabic is the predominant language in the northern part of the country, and is also spoken by the Nubians, who have their own language. South Sudanese tribes speak more than 100 independent languages. St. 70% of the population are Sunni Muslims, less than 30% (inhabitants of the south) are Christians and animists.

History of Sudan

In the 1st floor. 12th c. BC. in the territory of Northern Sudan and Egypt, a slave-owning state of the Nubians arose. OK. 560 BC The Nubians were driven out of Egypt. They moved the capital of the state from Napata to Meroe. The Meroitic state was very advanced for that time. The Meroites mastered iron smelting, various crafts, built stone palaces and fortresses, and created their own culture.

In the 5th-6th centuries. the population of Northern Sudan was converted to Christianity. The medieval Nubian civilization (Macuria, Alva, Nobatia) comes to replace the ancient Meroitic civilization. The Nubian civilization reached its peak in the 9th-12th centuries.

From the 7th c. Islam began to penetrate Sudan. In the 16th century large feudal Muslim sultanates arose, which fought among themselves for dominance. One of the strongest was the Sennar Sultanate.

In 1820-22, the Turkish-Egyptian army of the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, conquered all of Northern and Central Sudan and annexed it to Egypt. In the course of the Egyptian military expeditions to the south in 1827-78, they subjugated almost the entire territory of modern Sudan to Egypt.

During the period when Sudan was part of the Ottoman Empire, outbreaks of dissatisfaction of the Sudanese population with the rule of foreigners often occurred. Unrest among the population began in the northern and central regions of Sudan. Sufi brotherhoods (tarikats) began to preach and teach: Ansariyya, Khatmiya, Ismailiya Tijaniya, Idrisiyya, and others. In 1878, an uprising of Sudanese Arabs broke out in the southwestern provinces. In 1881, the Mahdists began an uprising against Turkish-Egyptian domination. In 1883 the Dinka tribes revolted, joined by the Beja tribes. On January 5, 1885, the Mahdists captured Omdurman, and on January 25, Khartoum fell under their blows. In July 1885, the Turkish-Egyptian troops left Sudan, and the Mahdists proclaimed the creation of an independent theocratic state based on the Koran. It lasted until 1898.

In 1896, a 10,000-strong expeditionary force of British and Egyptian troops entered into battle with the Mahdist troops and defeated them in several clashes. On September 1, 1898, the British captured Omdurman, and the Mahdist state fell.

On January 18, 1899, in Cairo, the Prime Minister of Egypt and a British general signed an agreement on the joint administration of the Sudan. From that moment Sudan received the official name of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. In fact, Sudan became a British colony. During the years of the existence of the condominium, dissatisfaction with the power of the colonialists grew among the Sudanese population. After the 2nd World War, political parties appeared in Sudan, which raised the issue of the country's independence.

The independence of Sudan was proclaimed on January 1, 1956. The political struggle between the traditional parties led to a military coup in Sudan in November 1958. The power of the military fell in 1964 as a result of the broad action of the popular masses against the regime of General Abboud. A parliamentary republic was restored in Sudan. The new government included representatives of the main political parties, both right and left, united in the National Front in the struggle against the military dictatorship. However, the united front did not last long.

In 1965, right-wing forces succeeded in banning the Communist Party of Sudan. Right-wing parties came to power. Portfolios in the government were divided between the Al-Umma and NUP parties. Leftist organizations were not represented in the government.

The state of a protracted political and economic crisis, military operations in the south of the country led in May 1969 to a new military coup in Sudan, carried out by a group of officers led by Colonel J. Nimeiri. The new military leadership banned traditional right-wing parties. Legal ban on the activities of the Communist Party of Sudan. (SKP) was not withdrawn, but the communists resumed the semi-legal printing of their newspaper, and 5 members of the Central Committee of the UPC became part of the new government.

Some of the large industrial enterprises, transport, insurance and trading firms were nationalized in the country. During this period, relations between Sudan and the USSR were actively developed.

On July 19, 1971, a group of young officers attempted to remove J. Nimeiri. After the failure of the coup, Nimeiri launched a crackdown on the UPC, accusing it of involvement in the conspirators. The USSR and other socialist countries were included in the same category. Nimeiri reoriented foreign policy ties, began to pursue a policy of liberalization in the economy, a line to attract foreign investment. Previously nationalized enterprises and firms were returned to their former owners. In 1972, an agreement was signed on the settlement of the South Sudan problem.

In April 1985, a group of senior officers led by the Minister of Defense, General A. Dagab, carried out a bloodless coup d'état, taking advantage of the growing dissatisfaction with the Nimeiri regime, the resumption of hostilities in the south and the general crisis in the country. A year later, the military, as promised, transferred power to the newly elected Constituent Assembly. Sadiq al-Mahdi, leader of the Al-Umma party, became prime minister.

On June 30, 1989, a coup d'état took place in Sudan. Power passed to the National Salvation Revolution Command Council (SCRNC), composed of 15 officers, headed by General Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir. The SKRNS announced the suspension of the interim Constitution of 1985, the dissolution of parliament, the house arrest of all members of the government, a number of high-ranking military, officials, political and public figures, the prohibition of all political parties, the closure of left-wing and centrist newspapers, and the restriction of the activities of trade unions. Having achieved a certain stabilization of the situation in the country, in December 1990 the SKRNS announced the course towards "Islamization" as the doctrine of the ruling regime. Under these conditions, the role of the National Islamic Front and its chairman H. Turabi began to grow in Sudan.

October 16, 1993 SKRNS appointed O. Bashir as president of the country and announced self-dissolution. In March 1996, presidential and parliamentary elections were held in Sudan. Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir was elected president.

State structure and political system of Sudan

Sudan is a state with a republican form of government of a federal type.
The 1998 Constitution is in force (approved in a referendum). Administratively, Sudan is divided into 26 governorates (states), each headed by a government-appointed governor. The largest cities: Khartoum (unites three cities - Omdurman, Khartoum and North Khartoum), Wad Medani, Atbara, Port Sudan, Juba, Wau, Kassala, El Obeid.

The highest body of legislative power is the National Assembly. The number of deputies is 360. The highest body of executive power is the Council of Ministers. Chairman of the National Assembly - Ahmed Ibrahim Taher. The Prime Minister is Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir (President of the Republic).

Famous political figures of Sudan who have held the posts of presidents, prime ministers:

Jaafar Nimeiri - served as the head of the country in 1969-85, has the rank of Marshal of the Armed Forces of Sudan;

Sadiq al-Mahdi - leader of the Al-Umma party, served as prime minister in 1986-89;

Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir - Lieutenant General, leader of Sudan since 1989 (Chairman of the SCRN), President of Sudan since 1993.

Local governments have been given broad powers in the field of legislative and executive power. However, in reality, the federation created in Sudan (decree of 1994) has a nominal character. The system of state administration still retains the rigid character characteristic of the military regime.

The right to create political organizations within the framework of the law is guaranteed by the country's Constitution of 1998 (after the military coup on June 30, 1989, all political organizations were banned). Registration of parties resumed from January 1999. At the end. 2002 more than 30 parties registered.

Main political parties:

National Congress - ruling party (successor of the National Islamic Front), President O. al-Bashir (President of Sudan), General Secretary Ibrahim Hassan Omar;

Unionist Democratic Party (UDP), founded in 1967, leader Osman al-Mirgani, general secretary Sherif Zeid al-Din al-Hindi;

Al-Umma Islamic Party, founded in 1945, leader Sadiq al-Mahdi, general secretary Omar Nur Ad-Daim;

a number of opposition political parties united in the National Democratic Alliance, headquartered in Asmara (Eritrea), chairman Osman al-Mirgani, secretary general Mubarak al-Mahdi;

The Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), leader John Garang de Mabior, was founded in 1983 (an opposition South Sudanese movement that is negotiating with the government of Sudan on a settlement in South Sudan).

The internal political situation in Sudan is characterized by tension. In 1999, the confrontation between O. al-Bashir and the forces of radical Islamists led by H. Turabi escalated. The president announced the dissolution of the parliament, chaired by the leader of the NIF, and declared a state of emergency to stop the speeches of disgruntled Turabi supporters.

In February 2000, the headquarters of the People's Islamic Conference, located in Khartoum, which united radical fundamentalist organizations in several countries of the Muslim world, was closed. In May 2000, Turabi was removed from his post as general secretary of the ruling National Congress party, and in February he was arrested along with a number of supporters.

The authorities were actively working to achieve national reconciliation through dialogue with all political forces both at home and abroad. The government came up with the initiative to hold a General Congress of National Dialogue in Khartoum with the participation of representatives of all political forces in the country.

In May 1999, former President J. Nimeiri returned to Sudan after 14 years of emigration, in November 2000 - the leader of the largest opposition party Al-Um-ma Sadiq al-Mahdi, in November 2001 - one of the prominent figures of the opposition National Democratic Alliance, deputy chairman UDP Ahmed Mirghani.

For decades, one of the main destabilizing factors has been the unsettledness of the South Sudan problem. Tension between the Muslim North and the Christian South remains one of the main reasons for the ongoing civil war in the South. From 1983 (since the resumption of armed clashes in southern Sudan) until 2003, approx. 2 million people In the beginning. 2003 between the government of Sudan and the opposing SPLM, led by former colonel of the Armed Forces of the Sudan John Garant, agreements are reached that can serve as the basis for reaching a final settlement of the South Sudan problem.

In foreign policy, Sudan advocates the development of relations with all countries. He declares his commitment to the Charters of the UN, the AU, the Arab League, the OIC.

After the UN Security Council lifted on September 28, 2001, the limited diplomatic sanctions imposed against Sudan in connection with the complaint of Egypt and Ethiopia, accusing Sudan of being involved in an attempt on the life of ARE President H. Mubarak in June 1995 in Addis Ababa, Khartoum is making efforts to normalize relations with neighboring countries. Relations with the USA and Great Britain are being established. Washington is taking steps to assist in resolving the conflict in southern Sudan (a special representative of US President George W. Bush has been appointed on this issue).

In May 1999, Sudan announced its accession to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction. Khartoum has also acceded to all international treaties and agreements on combating terrorism.

The total number of regular Armed Forces is 117 thousand people, paramilitary formations (people's defense forces) 7 thousand people. Military budget $387 million (2001). Ground forces 112.5 thousand people, Air Force 3 thousand people, Navy 240 people.

Economy of Sudan

Sudan is one of the underdeveloped countries and is one of the poorest countries in the world. GDP $12.2 billion, per capita income $385 (2001). Inflation - 10% (2001). The basis of the economy is agriculture, which employs approx. 80% of the economically active population. It accounts for 45% of GDP. The share of industry in GDP is 22.8% (it employs about 5% of the population), the service sector - 31.6% (2002).
Despite the large mineral resources, Sudan's industry is generally underdeveloped. Main industries: mining (8.7% of GDP), manufacturing (7.9% of GDP), light and food, pharmaceutical, production of building materials. There is a serious shortage of electricity in the country.

Oil production and refining are developing most dynamically. Oil reserves are estimated to exceed 3 billion barrels. In 1999, the construction of a 1610 km oil pipeline was completed, connecting the South Sudanese Heglik field with a terminal on the Red Sea (Port Sudan). The annual oil production is approx. 13 million tons (2002). Part of the oil produced goes to an oil refinery on the outskirts of Khartoum. Extraction, export and processing of part of the oil allowed the government to meet the country's domestic needs for petroleum products and save up to $350 million, which was annually spent on imports. It also gave the government the opportunity to announce as early as Ser. 2000 to reduce prices by 27% for gasoline and 17% for gasoline and kerosene.

The extraction of chrome ore is approx. 4 thousand tons (1996), gold 3700 kg. Iron ore reserves are determined to be more than 500 million tons.

Manufacturing industry (1999): flour - 532 thousand tons, sugar - 622 thousand, vegetable oil - 100 thousand, cement - 267 thousand tons, textiles - 35 million yards, shoes - 48 million pairs, cigarettes - 122 tons.

Electricity used in industry, agriculture and everyday life is produced at 12 thermal and 3 hydroelectric power plants. The average electricity consumption per capita is approx. 53 kWh. More than 80% of electricity is generated by power plants in the central region of Sudan. It became the core of a unified power system linking all hydroelectric power plants at the Sennar dam, in Hashm El-Gerb and in Er Roseires with transformer substations in the provinces of Khartoum, Upper Nile and Northern. The central region accounts for more than 80% of total energy consumption. The share of the southern and western regions is 2%. The industry consumes 39% of all electricity produced, the household sector - 37%, the rest falls on agriculture, transport and other sectors of the economy. The share of the electric power industry in GDP is 3%. In accordance with the economic development program, it is planned to build an additional 10 dams on the Blue and White Nile, also on the Atbara River.

Sudan has significant land holdings. The area of ​​cultivated land is 12.5 million hectares, but irrigated land is only 1.9 million hectares (15%). Pastures occupy 56 million hectares, forests occupy 46.5 million hectares.

The main cash crop is cotton, mainly fine-fibered. The main cotton-producing center is Gezira (80% of the harvest). The share of cotton in total exports is falling. Assembled approx. 100 thousand tons (1998). Peanuts are also grown (4th place in Africa) - 800 thousand tons, sesame - 165 thousand, wheat - 597 thousand, sorghum - 4891 thousand tons, as well as millet, beans, barley, corn. An important place in agricultural production is occupied by fruit crops (mangoes, oranges, grapefruits, lemons, bananas, etc.), melons (watermelons, melons) and vegetables (onions, tomatoes, etc.).

Animal husbandry is the second traditional branch of agriculture. Sudan has the richest livestock resources: productive pastures, large areas, and a large number of livestock. The number of cattle - 20-22.5 million heads, sheep - 19-20 million, goats - 13.5-14 million, camels - 3 million, donkeys - 650-670 thousand, horses - 20-21 thousand. poultry approx. 30 million

Timber reserves are estimated at 1.3 billion m3 in wild forests and 8 million m3 in forest parks. Logging (1997, thousand m3): saw logs, plywood and sleeper logs - 110, other industrial wood - 2092, fuel wood -14 111, total: 16 313; gum arabic - 25.

Sudan has significant fish resources. The sources are the Nile and its tributaries, various reservoirs and the Red Sea. The catch was (thousand tons in live weight, 1997): Nile fish - 11, other freshwater - 31, marine - 5, inland waters - 42, Red Sea - 5.

The length of railways is 5503 km. The main export-import highway connects Khartoum and Port Sudan - 787 km. Of great importance are the branches of Wadi Halfa - Atbara - Khartoum - El Obeid, El Obeid - Nyala, Babanusa - Wau.

Road transport provides 60% of domestic traffic. The total length of motor roads is 48 thousand km, however, with a hard surface of 2335 km. The most important highway is Khartoum - Port Sudan (1186 km).

The only seaport in Sudan, Port Sudan was founded back in 1912. Its throughput is 8 million tons per year. Work is underway to increase its capacity to 13 million tons. In 1999, a cargo terminal was built for oil export between Port Sudan and the abandoned port of Suakin. With the financial assistance of European countries, work is underway to create a new port of Suakin, 60 km from Port Sudan, with a capacity of up to 1.5 million tons of cargo per year. Merchant fleet 19 vessels with a carrying capacity of 43,078 tons.

River transport has not received much development. The length of Sudan's navigation route is 4068 km, of which 1723 km are open for navigation all year round. Both the White Nile and the Blue Nile are used for navigation. The White Nile is the most important route connecting the northern and central regions of the country with the southern ones. The Blue Nile is of lesser importance, since it is not possible to transport long distances along it. In Sudan, there is a Sudanese-Egyptian joint venture operating on Lake Nasser between the cities of Wadi Halfa in Sudan and Aswan in Egypt.

The state airline Sudan Airways was transformed in 1993 into a joint-stock company with the participation of local and foreign private capital. The company has at its disposal 3 passenger and 7 cargo aircraft. In 1999, an intention was announced to build a new international airport 20 km east of Khartoum with two runways.

The telephone network of Sudan consists of 99 thousand lines. In 1997, a mobile telephone network was put into operation for the province of Khartoum. Subsequently, other provinces will join it. Since February 1999, a project has been implemented to increase the number of subscribers of the Sudanese telephone network from 180 thousand to 1.5 million by 2003. Up to 70% of telephone lines operate in the capital, the rest in 10 large cities.

In 2001, for the second year in a row, the foreign trade balance had a positive balance of $50 million. Exports are $1.23 billion, imports are $1.18 billion. Commodity structure of exports (%): crude oil - 70, sesame - 8, gasoline - 4.5, gold - 4, livestock - 4, cotton - 3, gum arabic and sugar. Import structure (%): machine tools and equipment - 28, manufactured goods - 20, medicines - 7, wheat - 9.7, oil products - 6. Extraction, processing and export of oil completely changed the situation with Sudan's foreign trade. If earlier the main export commodity was agricultural products, now oil and oil products. Supplies of Sudanese oil cover 80% of Ethiopia's needs for oil products.

Main trading partners: Saudi Arabia, Great Britain, Egypt, France, China, Japan, Italy, Germany, Ethiopia.

The issue of Sudan's accession to the WTO is being considered.

In 2000, the government of Sudan launched a banking reform to strengthen the economic system in the country. The tax policy of the state is also undergoing changes.

Sudan is in arrears on external loans, and a few years ago there was a question of suspending its membership in the IMF. In 1993, the Foundation stripped Sudan of its voting rights (the first time such an action had been taken against a country member of the Foundation). However, after the start of oil exports, Sudan resumed regular payments to the World Bank for debt service, as a result of which, from August 2000, its relations with the IMF normalized. Sudan's total external debt is $20 billion.

To overcome financial difficulties, the Central Bank of Sudan announced measures designed to stimulate development, lower inflation, stabilize the exchange rate, and support macroeconomic liberalization. According to the developed program for 1998-2003, GDP should increase by 6%, and inflation - to fall to 5%.

The IMF lifted nine years of sanctions on Sudan as the country managed to reduce its debt and carry out economic reforms. In May 2000, Sudan introduced a Value Added Tax (VAT) of 10% of the value of transactions for goods and services, and capital goods were exempted from import obligations. The government of Sudan also plans to expand the program of privatization of agro-industrial enterprises, transport, communications.

The economic growth rate in 2001 was 6.7% (in 2000 8.3%). This was achieved due to the rapid development of the oil industry. In the 2000 budget, revenue is provided for 298 billion court. dyn., expenses - 335 billion court. din.

Science and culture of Sudan

Sudan is a country of rich and distinctive culture. The ancestors of the Sudanese (Meroites) are considered the creators of alphabetic writing. However, in modern Sudan there is a question of eradicating illiteracy. The program adopted in this regard after independence made it possible to reduce illiteracy from 88% in 1956 (79% among men and 97.3% among women) to 49.4% in 1993 (respectively 35.6 and 62.5%). Nevertheless, the country's illiteracy rate remains one of the highest in the world, with Sudan ranked 10th in the number of illiterates.

Primary education for children under the age of 13 is free. Secondary education for children from 14 years old lasts 3 years. The higher education system of Sudan includes more than 30 higher education institutions, incl. 12 universities, 10 institutes. The University of Khartoum was founded in 1956, the University of the Two Niles - in 1993, the University of Juba - in 1977, the Gezira University - in 1978, the Islamic University in Omdurman - in 1912. A significant number of Sudanese study in other countries (in Egypt, Syria, Germany, USA, UK, RF, Ukraine, etc.).

Contemporary Sudanese literature is young. The spirit of the national liberation movement in the first quarter of the 20th century. found reflection in the works of revolutionary romanticism. With the end of World War II, an autobiographical genre appears in Sudanese literature. Sudanese poetry of the post-war period is distinguished by revolutionary-democratic pathos, and the realistic trend is gaining momentum. A characteristic feature of Sudanese literature in the 1950s and 60s. becomes topical, attention is drawn to everyday life, to the issues of life of the middle and lower strata, the peasantry, the position of women in the family and in the Muslim world. In the 1970s such well-known Sudanese prose writers as at-Tayib Salih, Ibrahim Hardello, Isa Khilva, Ayyub al-Khal, Nabil Ghali and others appeared. The literature of the peoples of the South developed only after Sudan gained independence. To the beginning 21st century Sudanese literature has gone from overcoming the inertia of traditional Arabic literature through a passion for sentimentalism and romanticism to mastering the method of critical realism and the techniques of European modernism.

The patterns of development characteristic of Arab-Sudanese and South Sudanese literature can be traced both in the musical culture and in the fine arts of Sudan.

SUDAN, Republic of Sudan (Gumhuriya al-Sudan) a state in northeastern Africa. The area of ​​Sudan is 2.5 million km2.

The population of Sudan is 34.2 million people (2004), mainly Sudanese (Arabs of Sudan), also Nubians and other peoples. The official language of Sudan is Arabic. The official religion is Islam.

Administrative-territorial division: 9 states. The capitals of Sudan are Khartoum (seat of government), Omdurman (seat of parliament). The head of state is the president. The legislative body of Sudan is the Parliament (Transitional National Council).

In the northeast, Sudan is washed by the waters of the Red Cape. Most of Sudan is a plateau with a height of 300-1500 m; in the west and south - the height of St. 3000 m. The highest point is the city of Chineti (3187 m).

The climate of Sudan is transitional from equatorial monsoon in the south to tropical, desert in the north. Average monthly temperatures are from 15 to 35 °C. Precipitation in the north is insignificant, in the south 1000-1400 mm per year. In the north - semi-desert and desert, in the south - savannah and tropical forests. The main rivers are the Nile with its tributaries the Sobat and the Blue Nile. National parks Boma, Jider, Southern (South), Nimule; several reserves.

In the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. a culture arose on the territory of Sudan, close to the modern culture of Egypt. Since the 19th century BC e. there was an early class state of Kush, from the 8th century. BC e. - Meroitic kingdom; from the 5th c. n. e. the Christian states of Mucurra, Aloa, Nobatia, Nubia arose. After the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (seventh century), their migration to the Sudan began. In the 16th century the Muslim states of Sennar, the Darfur Sultanate, and others arose. In South Sudan, inhabited mainly by Negroid tribes, pre-feudal relations were preserved. In 1820-1822, the territory of Sudan was conquered by the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali. From the 60s. 19th century began penetration into the Sudan of Great Britain. During the Mahdist uprising (1881-98) led by the Mahdi of Sudan, a theocratic independent state arose.

In 1899-1955 Sudan was a British colony (until 1951 legally an Anglo-Egyptian condominium). January 1, 1956 Sudan became an independent state - the Republic of Sudan. In 1958-1964 a dictatorial regime. As a result of the 1969 coup, the military headed by J. Nimeiri came to power. In 1972 South Sudan received autonomous status. This marked the end of a 17-year civil war. From the beginning In the 1980s, especially after the spread of Islamic law throughout the country (1983), the civil war resumed in the South. In 1985, the regime of J. Nimeiri fell. In 1986, a coalition government was formed headed by S. al-Mahdi (grandson of the Mahdi of Sudan), leader of the largest political party, Umma (founded in 1945).

In 1989 there was a military coup, the temporary constitution of 1985 was suspended, the parliament, government, parties and trade unions were dissolved. The National Salvation Revolution Command Council (SCRNS) became the highest legislative and executive body. In 1993, SKRNS appointed a president and announced its dissolution. The weak central government in Sudan was unable to control the entire country, which actually broke up into separate territories. In the province of Darfur, local African peoples rebelled against the central government, and since 2003, Arabized tribes have been thrown to pacify them. The conflict claimed the lives of approx. 300 thousand people. With the mediation of the African Union in 2006, its settlement began.

Sudan is a backward agricultural country. Share in GDP (1989,%): agriculture 36, industry 8.2. The main export crop is cotton (mainly on irrigated lands). Sesame, peanut, millet, sorghum, date palm are cultivated. Collection of gum arabic. Pasture animal husbandry. Extraction of chromium and manganese ores, salt (from sea water). Enterprises for the processing of agricultural raw materials. Metalworking, oil refining, cement and other industries. Electricity generation 1.3 billion kWh (1991). Length (thousand km) of railways 4.9, roads 22.5. The main seaport is Port Sudan. Export: approx. 90% of the cost - agricultural products. Main foreign trade partners: Great Britain, Germany, USA, Japan, China.

The monetary unit is the Sudanese dinar.

SUDAN
The Republic of Sudan is a state in northeastern Africa. It borders Egypt in the north, Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east, Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south, the Central African Republic and Chad in the southwest and west, and Libya in the northwest. In the northeast it is washed by the Red Sea. The territory of the country is part of the vast natural region of Sudan, which stretches from the Sahara desert to the tropical rainforests of Central and West Africa. In terms of its area (2.5 million sq. km), Sudan is the largest state on the African continent. In 1998, the population of the country was 33 million people, while 20% of the population lived in cities. About 10% are nomadic and 70% live in rural areas. Vast areas of deserts in the north of the country are completely uninhabited. The territories that became part of modern Sudan were first united in the 19th century, and the current state borders were established in 1898. On January 1, 1956, the independence of Sudan was proclaimed. The capital of the country is Khartoum.

Sudan. The capital is Khartoum. Population - 33 million people (1998). Population density - 13 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 20%, rural - 80%. Area - 2.5 million square meters. km. The highest point is Mount Chineti (3187 m). The official language is Arabic. The main religion is Islam. Administrative-territorial division: 9 states, including the capital - the city of Khartoum. Currency: Sudanese pound = 100 piastres. National holiday: Independence Day - January 1st. National anthem: "Greetings, Republic of the Sudan"

Nature. Surface structure. Most of the territory of Sudan is a vast plateau with an average height of 460 m, with a general slope from south to north. Its central parts are almost flat, but the surface gradually rises in western and eastern directions towards the higher parts of the plateau. In the south, along the border with Uganda, and in the east, along the border with Ethiopia and along the coast of the Red Sea, mountains stretch. In the mountains bordering Uganda, there is the highest point of the country, Mount Kinyeti (3187 m).
The entire country from south to north is crossed by the river system of the Upper and Middle Nile. The White Nile, known in its upper course as Bahr el-Jebel (translated as "mountain Nile"), originates in Uganda. It spreads over the vast clay plain Sudd (Arabic for "barrier"), where the flow slows down due to the abundance of aquatic vegetation. From the west, the El Ghazal River flows into the White Nile, which receives the flow of numerous rivers draining the watershed of the Nile and the Congo. From the east, the White Nile receives the Sobat tributary. The Blue Nile has its source in the mountains of Ethiopia, carries water to the northwest and merges with the White Nile at Khartoum. Below the river flows under the name Nile, taking in the east, 320 km north of Khartoum, a tributary of the Atbara, which, like the Sobat, begins in the mountains of Ethiopia. The White Nile has a stable runoff, as it is fed from the lake. Victoria and other lakes of Uganda. The Sudd region also has a regulating effect on the runoff. On the Blue Nile, only one flood is expressed - after heavy summer rains in Ethiopia; At the beginning of the year, the water level drops significantly. The Blue Nile and, to a lesser extent, the Atbara bring such a mass of flood water into the Nile that north of central Sudan the level of the Nile rises strongly in late summer. The minimum water level in the Nile is observed in winter.
In the Nile Valley, located in the desert zone, agriculture has developed over the centuries, based on the irrigation of fields with flood waters. Artificial irrigation facilities are used to irrigate land below the city of El Gebelein in the White Nile Valley and below the city of Singa in the Blue Nile Valley. At the same time, river waters are pumped out by pumps, and then, under the influence of gravity, they spread over the fields. In the region of El Gezira (Arabic for "island"), which is a wedge-shaped plain with an area of ​​​​approx. 2 million hectares between the White and Blue Nile south of Khartoum, the most important array of irrigated land is concentrated. The waters of the Blue Nile come here, dammed by a large dam at Sennar; the total area of ​​cultivated land there is 0.7 million hectares. Other major dams were built in the 1960s at Er Roseires on the Blue Nile and Khashm el Ghirb on Atbar (southwest of Kassala). The lands irrigated by water intake above the Hashm al-Ghirba dam are cultivated by peasants who moved from the area bordering Egypt in the Nile Valley, after it was flooded by the Nasser reservoir as a result of the construction of the Aswan dam.
West of the river The White Nile extends over the vast undulating plateau of Kordofan, 300-600 m above sea level. In the extreme west of Sudan is the Darfur plateau with a height of 1500 to 3000 m (the highest point is Mount Marra, 3088 m). Between the Kordofan Plateau and the Darfur Plateau, a number of isolated massifs with a height of 750 to 1000 m are scattered. To the north of them and to the east and southeast of Darfur there is a large massif of fixed sand dunes. In the extreme northwest, the moving dunes of the Libyan desert enter Sudan.
To the east of the Nile valley, the surface rises, forming the plateau of the Nubian Desert and the mountains fringing the coast of the Red Sea. The highest point of Mount Oda reaches 2259 m, some peaks exceed 1500 m. The mountains abruptly break off to a narrow sandy coastal plain 15 to 30 km wide, scorched by the heat. The coast is fringed with coral reefs and small islands, but only in a few places there are bays suitable for building ports.
Climate. The amount of precipitation and the duration of the wet season decrease from south to north. In the extreme south, more than 1500 mm of precipitation falls within nine months. Further north is the savannah, with alternating wet and dry seasons, which gives way to semi-arid and, finally, exclusively arid conditions. In the south, the weather is hot all year round, and in the north, hot summers give way to moderately warm winters. In Juba in the south of the country, the average annual rainfall exceeds 970 mm, and most of it falls from April to October. Average temperatures range from 26°C during the wet months (July-August) to 29°C during the dry months (February-March). Daytime temperatures reach 30-37°C throughout the year.
Khartoum in northern semi-arid central Sudan has an annual rainfall of just 150 mm and most of it falls as showers between July and September. Average temperatures range from 23°C in January to 34°C in early June. At the beginning of summer, daytime temperatures often exceed 43°C.
The extreme north of Sudan receives almost no precipitation: in some years, several showers bring from 13 to 25 mm. Average temperatures range from 16°C in January to 33°C in June-August. The maximum summer daytime temperatures sometimes reach 43-49°C.
The coastal zone is under the influence of warm sea waters. In Port Sudan, average temperatures range from 23°C in February to 35°C in August. A small amount of precipitation falls from October to January and in July-August, but the total annual amount does not exceed 100 mm. Moreover, the air is constantly humid, cool at night. With hot, humid days and muggy nights for much of the year, the coastal climate is considered one of the most inhospitable in the world.
Flora. The flora of Sudan varies from tropical rainforests in the south to deserts in the north. Six major vegetation zones are represented. Tropical rain forests grow near the southern border of the country. In the southwest, where the annual rainfall exceeds 1000 mm, tropical light forests and tall grasses are common. The most valuable tree species are Senegal kaya (Khaya senegalensis) and isoberlinia (Isoberlinia doka). Slash-and-burn agriculture is widely practiced. Tree growth is stifled by fires during the dry season. The zone of the savanna itself (the amount of precipitation is from 500 to 1000 mm) is characterized by the development of tall grass, as well as acacias and other trees, therefore the term "acacia-tall grass savanna" is used. However, significant areas flooded annually during floods are completely devoid of tree vegetation and are tall grass plains used for grazing. Papyrus and other marsh plants grow in limited areas in the zone of permanent flooding. In Central Sudan (the amount of precipitation is from 300 to 500 mm), low-grass savannah with dispersed acacias prevails. Most of the territory is used for grazing, partly acacias are cut down for fuel. In this zone, as well as in the savannahs in general, the well-moistened banks of the White and Blue Nile are overgrown with thorny light forest with acacias (Acacia arabica) and other trees used as commercial timber and for fuel. Further to the north (the amount of precipitation is from 50 to 300 mm), the vegetation is represented by a shrubby desert, where acacias grow, which are eaten by camels, sheep and goats. Gum arabic is extracted from the acacia senegal (Acacia senegal), which is one of the important exports of Sudan. The far north receives less than 50 mm of precipitation per year. The vegetation cover is extremely sparse and, with the exception of the Nile Valley, the area is almost uninhabited.
Fauna. In the south of the country, various animals live in forests and savanna woodlands, including elephant, buffalo, zebra, white and black rhinoceros, giraffe, lion, forest pig, chimpanzee, leopard, cheetah, hyena and many species of antelope: eland, large and small kudu, bush duiker, horse antelope, etc. Hippopotamus and crocodile are found along the watercourses in the south, as well as tropical birds such as flamingo, secretary, various types of storks, including marabou. In the Northern Hemisphere winter, European migratory birds cross the Sahara on their way to Northern Sudan, especially along the Nile Valley, and migrants from South Africa appear in the Southern Hemisphere winter. Monkeys, small birds, snakes and insects complete the diversity of the fauna. In drier savannahs and deserts, gazelles are found in places. The mountains in the west of Central Sudan are inhabited by the oryx and addax antelope, and in the northeast by the Nubian ibex and wild ass (in the mountains that stretch along the Red Sea coast).
POPULATION
Ethnogenesis and language. The population of ancient northern Sudan underwent a radical change in the Middle Ages as a result of the frequent migrations of nomadic Arabs and their marriages with the local population. In the north, Islam is the dominant religion and Arabic is the main language of communication; the Arab roots of the population are generally recognized. In cities and other settlements, widespread until the 20th century. the tribal system of organizing the social life of the population dies or is destroyed, but in the conditions of a nomadic way of life it still serves as a unifying factor. The Arabic-speaking population is predominantly sedentary and confined to river valleys and areas where there is sufficient rainfall to grow crops. In addition, Arabic is spoken by nomads who herd camels and sheep in the adjacent steppes, and there are also pastoral Arabs (baggara) of southern Darfur and Kordofan. Some Muslim tribes in the north of the country do not know Arabic, these are primarily the Cushitic-speaking Beja on the Red Sea coast, the Dongola and other Nubian peoples living in the Nile Valley and the Fur from Darfur.

Until the middle of the 19th century. the territory of Sudan south of 12° N. long. was not invaded by the Arabs or the Arabized northern peoples. So far, the local population has not converted to Islam. Ethnically, it belongs to several groups and speaks different languages. The main groups of the population of southern Sudan are the Nuba, who are engaged in agriculture on the slopes of southern Kordofan; the Shilluk, who dwell in the White Nile Valley and are ruled by highly revered chiefs; numerous Dinka tribes who graze cattle on the plains east of the White Nile and in the valley of the El Ghazal river, as well as the Azande, who live in the mountains between the Nile and the Congo.
A small number of foreigners live in Sudan. Greeks and, to a lesser extent, Armenians, Indians, and Yemenis control much of the city's retail trade. Muslim migrants from countries located west of Sudan, primarily from Nigeria, make up the main labor force on the cotton plantations in El Gezira (between the White and Blue Nile). In the field of foreign trade, technology and higher education, the role of Europeans (mainly British) is great, but they rarely live in the country permanently. The state language is Arabic, English is widely spoken, the educated part of the population of the South sometimes uses it as a means of interethnic communication.
Religion. Although all Arab settlers were Muslims, the planting of Islamic culture in northern Sudan dating back to the 15th-17th centuries was due to the efforts of Muslim missionaries and Sudanese who studied in Egypt or Arabia. These people were members of religious orders (tarika), and the Sudanese version of Islam was characterized by the devotion of ordinary Muslims to the head of the order and adherence to an ascetic lifestyle. At the beginning of the 19th century a new religious direction Khatmiya was formed, in which the influence of the descendants of its founder Mirgani is still preserved. During the period of Turkish-Egyptian rule in the 19th century. contact between Sudanese and more orthodox and sophisticated Egyptian Islam intensified. In 1881, the messianic movement of the Sudanese religious reformer Mohammed Ahmed began, who declared himself a mahdi (messiah, announcing the imminent coming of the prophet) and called for a struggle to restore true Islam. His followers began to be called Ansar (after the name of the dervish order they created). In today's Sudan, it is the Ansar and Khatmiyya who are the most influential religious sects, Ansar prevails in the western part of the country and in areas along the banks of the White Nile, Khatmiyya - in the north and east of the country. As a rule, both sects play an important role in the political life of Sudan.
The arrival of the Arabs gradually nullified the influence of Christianity, the religion of medieval Nubia, the state in the Nile Valley. In the 19th century several Catholic missions were still operating in Sudan, which, without much success, conducted religious propaganda among the pagan population. During the period of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium (1899-1955), in accordance with the orders of the British administration, the activities of Christian religious missions were allowed only in the southern part of the country, and Catholic and Protestant missionaries operated in strictly defined areas. In 1964, the Sudanese government expelled all foreign missionaries from the country. Although such a decision posed a serious threat to the life of local Christian churches, since it made it difficult for new clergy to arrive and gave new impetus to the Islamization of the southern regions, by this time Christianity in the south had already taken such deep roots that it allowed it not only to survive, but also to strengthen itself under support from local authorities.
Cities. A fairly dense conurbation, including Khartoum, Omdurman and North Khartoum, formed at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile. All three of these cities are very different from one another. Khartoum was founded in the 19th century. as the administrative center of the Turkish-Egyptian administration and retained this function during the period of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium. Khartoum is the most European city, different from other cities in Sudan. Omdurman, the former capital of the Mahdist state, despite some modernization, still retains a typical Sudanese appearance. Northern Khartoum, which arose in the 20th century. as the terminus of the railroad drawn from the north, it is largely associated with the maintenance of this road and the river port. In 1998, the total population of Khartoum, North Khartoum and Omdurman was approx. 4 million people, while a good half of them were refugees who left the southern regions because of the war, and residents of other regions who want to improve their financial situation. The development of a network of modern communications owes their appearance to such cities as Atbara (85 thousand inhabitants in 1998), located at the intersection of routes from the north and from the Red Sea coast, Kosti (100 thousand), which grew up at the intersection of the White Nile with the railway, and Port Sudan (310 thousand) on the Red Sea coast. In their importance, they replaced the ancient center of the Berber caravan routes, the former river jetty of Ed-Dueim and the almost abandoned seaport of Suakin, which played an important role during the Turkish rule. Other cities in the country combine administrative and economic functions; for example, Wad-Medani (230 thousand inhabitants in 1998) is the center of the cotton-growing region of El Gezira; El Obeid (250 thousand) - the main market for gum arabic and Kassala (250 thousand, 1998) - cotton growing. All these cities are also local administrative centers. In the southern part of the country, cities arose in the 20th century. as administrative centers, the largest of them - Juba (20 thousand inhabitants in 1998).
voluntary associations. The oldest voluntary associations in northern Sudan are Muslim spiritual orders, some of which originated as early as the 15th-16th centuries. Some of them are branches of religious brotherhoods spread throughout the Muslim world, others are purely local formations. Muslim religious orders are based on numerous local cells and are controlled by a hierarchy of spiritual leaders who are subject to the supreme sheikh. While the Ansar and Khatmiya sects, led by the Mirghani and Mahdi families respectively, are not spiritual orders in the full sense, they are organized on the same principles and play a similar role in the life of the Sudanese Muslim society. Initially, the orders were an association of zealous followers of Allah, striving through collective prayers under the guidance of those who were familiar with secret knowledge, to find a mystical way of penetration into Islam. At present, they are the bearers of a kind of emotional "revivalist" folk religion, which is perceived by more educated or orthodox Sudanese with a certain amount of mistrust and skepticism.
Strengthening contacts with Egypt and Western countries led to the emergence of a number of associations characteristic of the countries of the Middle East and Europe, in particular, literary and sports clubs, cooperatives and trade unions. Such associations began to be created in the last years of the existence of the condominium, and they were based on political rather than economic and social factors.
GOVERNMENT AND POLICY
Government. Since the unification in the 19th century. areas that make up the current territory of Sudan, the traditions of the authoritarian, centralized and bureaucratic method of governing the country are preserved. In practice, this system is undergoing changes due to a number of factors specific to the Sudan: the presence of a huge territory in the absence of adequate means of communication, the diversity of the ethnic composition of the population and the persistence of inter-tribal hostility. During the period of the Turkish-Egyptian domination, the top of the administrative apparatus was formed from among the subjects of the Ottoman Empire, mainly the Egyptians. After the formation of the Mahdist state, key posts in government were transferred to the Sudanese-northerners from the Nile regions, and during the reign of Caliph Abdullahi (1885-1898) - to his Baggar tribesmen. During the existence of the condominium, initially the highest positions were occupied by the British, but then the number of Sudanese officials gradually increased. English officials exercised control over the country's rural areas through a system of traditional power and tribal leaders. Since independence, northern Sudanese have always been at the helm of power.
On the eve of gaining independence in 1956, the country had already established a system of state power in the form of an elected parliament and a cabinet of ministers headed by a prime minister. The first step was the formation of a consultative council of Northern Sudan in 1944. In 1948, the creation of the Legislative Assembly, which included representatives of both northern and southern regions, followed, and in 1954, the first bicameral parliament in the country's history, most of whose deputies were elected during direct elections. elections.
During the condominium period, all power was concentrated in the hands of the governor-general, under whom a council of high-ranking British officials functioned from 1910. In 1948 this body was replaced by the Executive Council, which included Sudanese ministers. With the creation of the Parliament, the executive powers of the Governor-General were transferred almost entirely to a Sudanese-based cabinet, accountable to the legislature. With the declaration of independence, the remnants of the power retained by the Governor-General were transferred to the Supreme Commission, which consisted of five Sudanese.
After a military coup in November 1958, the constitution was suspended and the activities of the parliament and political organizations were banned. As a result of popular uprisings in October 1964, civilian rule was restored in the country, and in 1965 the parliament resumed its work. But in May 1969, a military coup took place again, the operation of the constitution and the activities of the parliament were suspended, and political organizations were dissolved. The Revolutionary Council, which consisted of ten members, headed by Jafar al-Nimeiri, assumed the functions of the highest authority. In 1972, al-Nimeiri dissolved the Revolutionary Council and in 1973 promulgated a constitution that provided for the restoration of the presidency with broad powers and the creation of people's councils. In 1985, al-Nimeiri's government was overthrown in a new military coup, and power passed to another military council.
After the 1986 elections, parliamentary democracy was restored in Sudan, and the government was headed by Sadiq al-Mahdi. The government has made several unsuccessful attempts to negotiate an end to the civil war in southern Sudan. The failure of Sadiq al-Mahdi in this direction, as well as the deteriorating economic situation in the country, predetermined the success of the military coup in June 1989, led by Umar Hassan al-Bashir. As head of the Revolutionary Leading Council for National Salvation, al-Bashir abolished the constitution, as well as the activities of the National Assembly, trade unions and all political organizations. The actions of the new leadership of Sudan enjoyed unconditional support from the National Islamic Front. In 1993, the governing Revolutionary Council was replaced by a civilian government, which was still headed by al-Bashir and which continued to be influenced by Islamic fundamentalists. In the presidential elections of 1996, al-Bashir won an unconditional victory. Elections to the National Assembly were held that same year. In a situation where all other political organizations were banned, candidates from the National Islamic Front easily won. One of the achievements of the legislature was the preparation of the text of a new constitution, which was adopted in 1998.
Political parties. Prior to the military coup of 1989, the leading political parties in Sudan were represented by the Unionist Democratic Party, the Sudanese Communist Party, the Al-Umma Party, a traditional Mahdist party founded in 1945, and a number of relatively few parties in South Sudan. The most influential of these were the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and its military wing, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). This group, led by John Garang de Mabior, arose in 1983 on a wave of resistance to al-Nimeiri's policy aimed at introducing a new administrative division in the south of the country. For many years, the activity of the SPLM was limited to the borders of South Sudan, but in 1995, speaking out against al-Bashir and the National Islamic Front, Garang, along with a number of political leaders of the North, formed a coalition called the National Democratic Union (NDU). It included such influential opposition political parties as Al-Umma and the Unionist Democratic Party. Other political factions in the South, the South Sudan Liberation Front and the South Sudan Defense Force, although opposed to the government in Khartoum, nevertheless refrained from joining the VAT. Traditionally, political organizations in Sudan have expressed personal loyalty and ambition rather than political principles. An exception was the Sudanese Communist Party, founded in 1944.
Judicial system. In 1983, al-Nimeiri replaced all existing legal laws with Muslim Sharia law based on the Qur'an. They included such punishments as cutting off hands and feet, as well as throwing stones. In 1986, Sharia law was abolished and a judicial system based on the Anglo-Indian civil code was temporarily restored. In 1991, there was a return to Islamic law, which caused discontent and resistance on the part of mainly Christians, as well as the population of the southern regions of the country, who adhere to traditional local beliefs.
Military establishment. Until 1924, the Sudanese troops were part of the armed forces of Egypt, then under the name of the Sudan Defense Forces and under the command of British officers became purely Sudanese military units. In 1954, the British were dismissed from officer posts, and the country's armed forces were named the Sudanese Army. In 1998, Sudan had a military force of just over 100,000 and could quickly mobilize tens of thousands of members of the People's Defense Forces, militia units subordinate to the National Islamic Front. Sudan received modern types of weapons from Libya, Iraq and China.
local authorities. After the Second World War, the process began to replace the English district commissioners, endowed with broad powers, with local councils with territorial rather than tribal jurisdiction. A system was introduced for the appointment of local government inspectors, who took over many of the administrative functions of the district commissioners. The rights of provincial governors were also curtailed. After 1958, the military regime tried to strengthen the role of the provinces; for this purpose, provincial councils were created, which included elected and appointed members, headed by the head of the council appointed from the center. In addition, a local executive body of the province was formed, and each province had its own budget. But in practice, the work of the soviets proceeded extremely sluggishly, and after the revolution of 1964 they almost ceased to function. The resumption of the civil war in the 1980s and the desire of the National Islamic Front to centralize the country in the 1990s led to a reduction in the power of local governments.
Foreign policy. In the period 1967-1971, significant assistance came to Sudan from the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. During the time of President al-Nimeiri, the strengthening of ties with the West began. The military coup of 1989 led to the establishment of close relations with Libya, which had a negative impact on relations with Western countries. After Iranian President Rafsanjani's visit to Sudan in December 1991, many Western and moderate Arab states curtailed their relations with Sudan, as it was blockaded with states professing Islamic fundamentalism. Sudan itself has refused to receive aid from the United States, saying that the Americans are using it to carry out espionage activities. The main sphere of activity in Sudan of international organizations, in particular the UN, during this period was the delivery of humanitarian food aid to the starving population of the southern regions of the country.
See below

Basic moments

The country's climate is transitional from equatorial monsoon in the south to tropical desert in the north. High temperatures are maintained throughout the year: in summer over 20-30 °C, in winter - not lower than 15-19 °C. There is very little precipitation in the north - less than 200 mm per year with a very long dry period. The south is more humid (500-1400 mm of precipitation per year), and the dry season does not exceed two months (the main rains fall from May to October).

Accordingly, the vegetation is diverse: almost the entire south of Sudan is covered with tall-grass savannah (grass height reaches 3 m) with groves of various trees, including valuable wood, and humid gallery forests are found along river valleys. The spurs of the Ethiopian highlands and the Central African plateau are covered with tropical mountain forests, on one hectare of which there are hundreds of species of trees. In Central Sudan, with its drier climate, a typical cereal savannah is common with acacias, tamarinds and giant baobabs scattered over it (the circumference of some trunks reaches 45 m). To the north, the typical savanna gives way to a desert savanna with a sparse cover of undersized grasses and thorny acacias. In the north of the country lies the Libyan Desert, covered with almost devoid of vegetation sand dunes. Low-growing forests are found in the north only on the mountain slopes near the coast of the Red Sea. The animal world of Sudan is mainly the inhabitants of the savannas: herds of elephants, oryx antelopes, gazelles, giraffes, lions, leopards, hippos, crocodiles have been preserved along the rivers. The life of the coastal waters of the Red Sea is rich.

The population of Sudan (over 40 million people) was formed on the migration routes between the Arab world and Central Africa, which determined the complexity of the ethnic composition: more than half of the population are Arabs, Nubians live in the Nile Valley, in the south of the country - the Negroid peoples of the Nuer, Shilluk and other Nilotic language group, at the western borders - Azande, Madi and other peoples who speak the languages ​​​​of the Sudanese group. The dominant religion, which actually has the status of the state - Islam. Sharia law is in force in the country, which - combined with the conditions of a paramilitary dictatorship and almost constant fighting in the south - does not favor the development of tourism. The Negroid population partly retains adherence to traditional culture and beliefs (cult of ancestors, etc.), traditional crafts are supported: wooden sculpture, masks, grass weaving, ornamented dishes. In the north, elegant products are made from embossed leather. The capital of Sudan - Khartoum, covers an area of ​​about 120 square meters. km and actually consists of three cities: Khartoum, North Khartoum and Omdurman. The capital is dominated by low houses, many parks, there is a national museum, as well as a museum of natural history at the university. Other major cities are Port Sudan, Wad Madani, El Obeid.

culture

Folk dwellings in different parts of Sudan differ in architectural form and building materials used. In the Nile Valley, rectangular houses are built of raw brick under a flat roof, the windows are small, the door is made of wood. On the coast of the Red Sea, houses are multi-storey, built of coral limestone, the windows are decorated with ornaments and original lattices called “musharabiya”. The dwellings of the African peoples of the southern provinces are round in shape, the walls are built of woven rods or clay, the roofs are conical or sphero-conical in shape and are laid with grass, the entrance is decorated with scratched geometric patterns. The Azande people decorate the bell-shaped roofs of their huts with cowrie shells. The dwellings of nomadic peoples are huts made of mats or tents covered with leather. In modern cities, houses are built of brick and reinforced concrete structures (the influence of the Arab cultural tradition, especially the Egyptian one, is noticeable).

It began to develop in the early Neolithic. This period includes stucco ceramics of the so-called. Khartoum culture, covered with an indented pattern of wavy lines or decorated with dotted geometric shapes. Terracotta figurines of humans and wild animals from the Late Neolithic, found in the territory of modern Sudan, are considered the earliest in the Nile Valley. During the existence of the Meroitic kingdom (9-8 centuries BC - 8-9 centuries AD), sculpture began to develop.

The foundations of the national art school were laid in the absence of developed traditions, since the fine arts of Islamic countries are limited only by the existence of calligraphy and ornamentation. Famous contemporary artists are Ahmad Mohammed Shibrain, Ibrahim al-Salah, George Edward (pseudonym of Omer Kheyri), M.O. Beshir and H. Abbas. The first women artists appeared (Amina Avad Borhan and others). Art exhibitions are also held in the Graphic Museum (Khartoum).

Wooden and clay sculpture is developed among some African peoples inhabiting the southern and central provinces (Bari, Bongo, etc.). Zoomorphic figurines, decorated with indented or scratched ornaments, are laconic and do not differ in variety. Among the Shilluk people, ritual masks made from dried gourds are common. The revival of easel art (lost during the Islamization of Sudan) began in the second half. 20th century The country's first professional sculptor is Amir Nour (educated in the UK, works in the avant-garde style). Other sculptors - M. Kua, A. Hamid.

Crafts and artistic crafts are widespread. In the northern provinces, Arab craftsmen perform filigree work on copper and silver, make objects from smooth and embossed leather (saddles, camel and horse harness, wineskins and buckets). In the south, it is common to make products from wood, clay, metal (bronze, iron and copper), bones and horns: round-bottomed vessels with engraved and pricked line drawings, spoons from animal horns decorated with engraving, stools carved from a single piece of wood (in of the Bongo people), egg-shaped vessels made of black clay, decorated with scratched ornaments (among the Dinka), clay pipes, wooden dishes with legs, knives with forked blades (among the Azande). Woven products made of grass and colored straw are distinguished by a variety - mats (used as prayer rugs in houses and mosques), dishes and covers for them, as well as various baskets.

National literature is based on the traditions of oral folk art (Nubian folklore, Bedouin oral poetry, fairy tales of the peoples of South Sudan), and Egyptian literature also had a great influence on its formation. The first monuments of folklore - poetic legends - date back to the 10th century. n. e. Starting from the 8th c. AD, and until the second half. 19th century Sudanese literature (mostly poetry) developed as part of Arabic literature. The most significant works of this period are the so-called. Chronicles of Sennar (narrations about the Sultanate of Sennar, which existed in the 16th-19th centuries in the territory of modern southern Sudan; the author of one of the most famous versions of the chronicles was Ahmed Katib al-Shun) and a biographical dictionary of Muslim saints, poets and ulemas called Tabaqat (Steps) , written by Muhammad wad Dayfallah al-Jaali. The poet of the Mahdist movement, Yahya al-Salawi, is considered the founder of the political poetry of Sudan.

The literature of Sudan develops mainly in Arabic (since the 1970s, some authors write their works also in English). The literature of the peoples inhabiting the southern regions of Sudan began to develop after the country gained independence. The poetry of the black authors Mohammed Miftah al-Fayturi and Muhi al-Din Faris reflects the problems of the relationship between the South and the North.

The first story in Sudanese literature, The Death of the World, was written in 1946 by Muhammad Ahmed Mahjub and Abd al-Halim Muhammad. The author of the first novel (Season of Pilgrimage to the North, 1969, translated into Russian in 1975) is at-Tayib Salih. Famous Sudanese writers - Abdallah Hamid al-Amin, Abu Bakr Khalid, at-Tayyib Zarrouk, Ibrahim Hardello, Isa Khilwa, Muawiy Mohammed Nur (was also a poet, critic and translator), Mohammed Ashri, Nabil Ghali, Salah Hassan Ahmed, Salah Ahmed Ibrahim, Fazelbari Ahmed, Yusef al-Atta and others. Poets - Mustafa Sanada, Mohammed Abd al-Khaya, Mohammed Ahmed Mahjub, Taj al-Sir al-Hasan, Tawfik Ahmed, Hamza al-Malik Tunbul, Yusuf Bashir at-Tijani ( his poem Revolution (1924) is considered the best lyric work of the pre-war period), etc.

In 1956, the Association of Sudanese Writers and the League of Sudanese Writers were established, and in 1979, the Union of Sudanese Writers.

The music of Sudan has a long tradition, formed in the process of interaction between Nubian, Arabic and African musical cultures. From the end of the 19th century Sudanese musical culture was greatly influenced by Egypt.

Playing musical instruments, songs and dances are closely connected with the daily life of the people of Sudan. The musical instrumentation is distinguished by a variety of musical instruments: accordion, bukhsa (a noise instrument made from dried pumpkins filled with small stones or seeds), zumbara (flute), garin and penakh (winds), nuggara (timpani), various drums (dingir, doluka, tabl, tar and etc.) and strings - darbuka, oud, um-kiki, violin, tambour (its varieties are common: among the Nubians - "kisir", among the peoples of the western provinces - "bene-bene", eastern - "bangia", southern - "tom "). Clay, wood, metal, reeds, gourds and animal horns serve as materials for making musical instruments. Song genres are more developed among the peoples of southern Sudan. In the western provinces, most of the songs are inextricably linked with dances - jarrari, mardum, khasis (all of them reflect the way of life of nomadic pastoralists), flounder (the dance that accompanies the initiation ritual). The male (arda) and female (dove) dances of the peoples of the central provinces, as well as the shaman dance called "moshemba", common in the east of the country, are distinguished by their originality.

Famous Sudanese singers of the past are Ibrahim al-Kashif, Karoma, Saror, Khalil Farah. Composers - I. al-Kashif, A. Marjan, A. Shurahbil and others. National radio broadcasting plays a significant role in preserving the musical tradition of the peoples of Sudan. Modern singers are Abd al-Karim al-Kabli, Ahmed al-Jabri, Zeidan Ibrahim, Mohammed Abd al-Amin, Mohammed Vardi, Mohammed Mirgani, Salah Mustafa, Hamad Raikh, Hassan Atiya. The singer Salah bin Wadieh (works at the Institute of Music and Drama, established in Khartoum in 1969) enjoys particular popularity.

Elements of the theater are present in the traditional rites and rituals of the peoples inhabiting Sudan. One of the forms of folk theater is the work of griots - a caste of wandering actors, storytellers, musicians and singers (also common in West Africa). The origin of modern theater dates back to the second half of the 20th century.

Story

In ancient times, a significant part of the territory of modern Sudan (called Kush, and later - Nubia) was inhabited by Semitic-Hamitic and Kushite tribes related to the ancient Egyptians. The Nubians traded with ancient Egypt and were subjected to predatory raids by him. The descendants of the Nubians still inhabit the Nile Valley in Sudan and neighboring Egypt (south of Aswan). Negroid tribes (Nilotes) also penetrated here from the south - they currently live in the basin of the upper and middle Nile in Sudan, as well as in the regions of Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Congo, Ethiopia, and Egypt bordering Sudan.

By the 7th century A.D. e. Sudan was a small scattered Christian kingdoms (Aloa, Mucurra, Nobatia) and possessions. In the 640s, Arab influence began to penetrate from the north, from Egypt. The area between the Nile and the Red Sea was rich in gold and emeralds, and Arab gold miners began to penetrate here. The Arabs brought Islam with them. Arab influence spread mainly to the north and west of Sudan.

In 1819-1838. Egypt captured the areas of Dongola, Berber, Kassala, Sennar and Kordofan. In accordance with the firman of the Sublime Porte in 1841, the administration of these administrative units, called "Egyptian Sudan", was transferred to the Viceroy of Egypt, thus Sudan became part of the Ottoman Empire, but in fact became the possession of Egypt. Tropical swamps prevented the advance further south. For most of the 19th century, Egypt claimed control of the entire territory of present-day Sudan, but in reality the south of the country remained a place inhabited by scattered tribes subjected to frequent raids by slave traders.

In the second half of the 19th century, the influence of Great Britain increased in Sudan. An Englishman became Governor-General of Sudan. Cruel exploitation and national oppression led to the emergence of a powerful popular protest movement with a religious focus. The religious leader Mohammed ibn Abdallah, who in 1881 proclaimed himself "Mahdi" (messiah) and tried to unite the tribes of western and central Sudan against the British and the Ottomans. The uprising ended with the capture of Khartoum in 1885 and the expulsion of European, Turkish and Egyptian officials from the country. The leader of the uprising soon died, but the state he created, headed by Abdallah ibn al-Said, lasted another fifteen years, and only in 1898 the uprising was crushed by the Anglo-Egyptian troops. January 19, 1899 Great Britain and Egypt signed an agreement on the establishment of joint management in the Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian condominium) - south of the 22nd parallel. But this treaty did not clearly delineate the contours of the relationship between the two governments. Secondly, he did not provide a legal basis for the continuation of the British presence in the Sudan - the British ruled there on behalf of the Khedive. The supreme military and civil administration in Sudan was transferred to the Governor-General - an officer who was appointed and dismissed by the Khedive with the consent of the London government. Each Sudanese province was assigned a governor (mudir), two inspectors and several district commissioners. Almost all of these posts were assigned to British officers seconded to the Egyptian army, but then (since 1901) civilian officials began to arrive in the country. Egyptians became middle-level officials, and representatives of the local Sudanese population became lower-level officials. At first, the British administration ruled rather freely, but in 1910 an Executive Council was created under the Governor General, whose consent was required in all legislative and budgetary matters. It included the Inspector General, Civil, Judicial and Financial Secretaries, and 2-4 other British officials appointed by the Governor General.

The British administration, in order to strengthen its power, in particular, encouraged the ethnic and political separatism of the population of the Sudanese south, who adhere to traditional beliefs and profess Christianity. Thus, the preconditions for future ethnic and religious conflicts were laid.

At the beginning of World War II, the Italian army, operating from the territory of Abyssinia, occupied part of the territory of Sudan, but already in 1941 the Italians were forced to leave, and Sudan became an important base for the British Armed Forces in Africa. Military units recruited from the local population participated in the hostilities in Eritrea, Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia.

Participation in the war had positive consequences for Sudan - the growth of national industry, the intensification of political life, the emergence of political parties, and the strengthening of aspirations for independence.

Egypt after the 1952 revolution recognized the right of the Sudanese people to self-determination. In 1955, the Sudanese parliament declared the country's independence, and in the same year, British and Egyptian troops were withdrawn from Sudan.

The Muslim-dominated central government in Khartoum refused to deliver on promises of a federal state, leading to a revolt of Southern officers and a civil war that lasted from 1955 to 1972.

The country during this time experienced several military and state coups, but the regimes that succeeded each other were unable to cope with the problems of separatism, ethnic disunity and economic backwardness. After another coup on June 30, 1989, Colonel Omar Hassan al-Bashir came to power, holding it to this day. As a political support, he chose the then unpopular National Islamic Front party, which proclaimed a course towards building a truly Islamic society, headed by Hassan Abdallah Turabi, known for his fundamentalist views. Since the beginning of the 90s, the country has been intensively pursuing a course towards the Islamization of life, which process stopped only at the beginning of the 21st century, when Turabi and Bashir disagreed and were the first to go into opposition. Bashir is the President and Head of State, Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the country's Armed Forces. Elections are expected to be held in 2009, but it is considered unlikely that this initiative will materialize.

In foreign policy, Sudan followed a nationalist, pro-Arab and pro-Islamic course. In 1956 Sudan supported Egypt during the Suez crisis. During the Arab-Israeli war of 1967, Sudan declared war on Israel and sent military units to help Egypt. After coming to power in the country of Bashir, Sudan professes a pragmatic policy, but tends to cooperate with radical Islam and conservative Arab regimes.

In 1991, at the invitation of the spiritual leader of the Islamic fundamentalists of Sudan, Turabi, the Saudi millionaire Osama bin Laden, the head of the international terrorist organization Al-Qaeda, arrived in the country. Osama bin Laden directed some of his first terrorist attacks from inside the country. In 1996, he was forced to leave Sudan and move his organization to Afghanistan.

The signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement in 1972 led to the end of the civil war between the warring North and South and the granting of a certain autonomy to the South in matters of internal governance. The lull lasted for about ten years, after which the armed conflict was resumed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army. The reason for this was the policy of Islamization of the country, within the framework of which in 1983 the then President Jafar Nimeiri divided the southern province of Equatoria into three separate provinces, and some types of penalties provided for by Sharia norms (such as stoning, public whipping and amputation of hands).

According to American estimates, in the two decades since the resumption of armed conflict in southern Sudan, government forces have killed about two million civilians. As a result of periodic droughts, famine, lack of fuel, expanding armed confrontation in the south of the country, human rights violations, more than 4 million southerners were forced to leave their homes and flee to cities or neighboring countries - Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Egypt. Refugees are deprived of the opportunity to farm or otherwise earn a living, suffer from malnutrition and malnutrition, and lack access to education and health care. Years of civil war led to the emergence of the so-called "lost generation".

Peace talks between the rebels of the South and the government in 2003-2004. gave tangible results, but armed clashes in a number of southern regions continue. The parties agreed that upon reaching a final peace agreement, South Sudan would enjoy autonomy for 6 years, after which the issue of the independence of this territory would be put to a referendum. During this period, oil revenues will be equally divided between the government and the rebels. Observers, however, question the government's ability and willingness to meet its obligations.

In the meantime, in early 2003, an uprising broke out, now in the west of the country, in the Darfur region. There are at least two rebel groups in the region, differing in their approach to the goals of the struggle - simply achieving independence or overthrowing the central Khartoum government. Both government troops and rebels accuse each other of atrocities. Most of the accusations relate to the actions of the pro-government Arab armed groups "Janjaweed". According to existing estimates, from 10 to 30 thousand people from among the local black population died at their hands. Ethnic cleansing led to the fact that about a million people left the conflict zone and took refuge in neighboring Chad.

The Darfur region is inhabited by representatives of various nationalities, which in principle can be combined into two groups - black Africans and Arab tribes that have inhabited the region since about the 13th century. Both of them profess Islam, but relations between the two ethnic groups for many centuries have been tense and have led to regular armed clashes. Until the 20th century, Darfur was the center of the slave trade, with black and Arab slave traders competing with each other in raiding the neighboring region of Bahr el Ghazal to capture slaves and then resell them to the African coast. Ethnic groups also clashed with each other over limited land and water resources.

The reason for the modern conflict was an agreement between Khartoum and the rebels of the South on the division of oil revenues. The black population of Darfur believes that their economic interests were not taken into account in the agreement.

On August 23, 2004, multilateral negotiations began in Nigeria to resolve the Darfur crisis.

Population

According to the 2016 census, the population of Sudan was 39,578,828 people. Since that time, general censuses in the country have not been carried out due to the civil war.

The constant movement of peoples, the slave trade, the changing forms of existence, the collapse of ancient kingdoms and dynasties caused by the invasion of Arabs and Europeans - led to the emergence of a population with very different linguistic characteristics and diverse religious and cultural traditions.

However, arbitrarily drawn borders between neighboring countries divide such peoples as the Nubians in the north of the country, the Azande in the southwest and the Lotuko in the south.

There is a rapid increase in the population of the Khartoum metropolis (Khartoum - Omdurman - North Khartoum) - already 6-7 million people, including about 2 million displaced people from conflict areas in the south of the country and agricultural areas affected by drought.

Sudan is characterized by the presence of two different cultural traditions - Arabic and black African. Within each of them there are hundreds of ethnic, tribal and linguistic differences, which makes effective cooperation between them extremely difficult.

The northern provinces occupy most of Sudan. Most of the country's urban centers are also located here. Most of the Sudanese living here are Arabic-speaking Muslims (Sunnis) of various ethnic origins, while most of them also use their native language.

In the south and west, the peoples of the Negroid race predominate. Most southerners retain local traditional beliefs or practice Christianity. The south is characterized by an agrarian economy based on subsistence farming. The civil war, which lasted almost the entire period after the country gained independence, had disastrous consequences from an economic and demographic point of view.

Most of the population is concentrated in the valleys of the Nile and its tributaries. The population density is especially high in the main cotton-growing region of the country - the northern part of the interfluve of the White and Blue Nile. The northern and northwestern desert regions are almost uninhabited.

Cities are mainly located along the banks of the Nile and its tributaries. The largest cities are Khartoum, Omdurman, North Khartoum, Port Sudan.

Economy

Sudan is an underdeveloped agricultural country. One of the main suppliers of high-quality cotton to the world market. Sudan accounts for more than half of the world's gum arabic production. Major exports also include peanuts, sesame, hides and skins. They also grow sorghum, peanuts, wheat, and sugar cane. The main industries are the processing of agricultural raw materials, the production of building materials, and consumer goods.

In recent years, oil production has been rapidly expanding, the export of which has become the most important source of foreign exchange earnings. In 2006, 132.7 million barrels were produced.

The main industrial centers are Khartoum, North Khartoum, Omdurman, Port Sudan, Atbara.

GDP growth in 2006 was 9.3%.

1. Using a textbook, as well as atlas maps, name the features of nature, population and its economic activity in the countries of Sudan and Central Africa.

The climate is warm, the winds blow from the seas, there is little precipitation. Features of nature: constant warm weather, rare animals, few reservoirs. Economic activity is the same there and there, 1) hunting 2) fishing 3) agriculture (but not everywhere)

2. Compare agriculture in North Africa, Sudan and Central Africa.

The following states are included in Central Africa: Gabon, Angola, Congo, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Sao Tome, Equatorial Guinea and Chad. Central African countries have a good range of natural resources. This allows them not only to develop industry, but also to be a subject of foreign trade. So, for example, the Congo has the largest reserves of gold, silver, diamonds and copper in the world. Chad's economy is based on agriculture. This state exports wool, cotton and textiles to European countries. However, even the most developed states of Central Africa do not fully use their potential. Guinea is an agricultural country. The main grain crop is rice. In addition to it, cassava, sweet potato, yams (a perennial shrub with large tubers) and other tropical crops are grown for their own consumption. Valuable species of trees grow in the equatorial forests: iron, red, black, ceiba, and others. A woodworking industry is developing. The country is rich in minerals. Guinea is the most important supplier of bauxite in the world market.

North African countries. This group includes: Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Mauritania, etc. The coastal strip and mountain valleys are especially densely populated, where more than 90% of the country's population lives. Valuable subtropical crops are grown on fertile soils.

3. What countries are located in Southern Sahara? How do people deal with drought there?

Countries - Egypt, Libya, part of Sudan, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Algeria, Niger, are located in the southern part of the Sahara desert.

The poor people are fighting the drought the best they can. Why do desertifications happen? Yes, because they often allow overgrazing of animals that eat not only vegetation, its upper part, but also pull it out with roots, and then the wind - and the sand flew away, not delayed by anything. the roots of the sand lingered, did not fly apart, they plant grasses.

In the Sahara, there are reservoirs under the sand, they are now searched for with the help of modern water search tools, they settle there. There is a lot of water in the desert, but you need to find it.

4. Indicate which economic activities of the indigenous population of the countries of Sudan and Central Africa contribute to the desertification of the savannas and the reduction of forests.

The indigenous people of the countries of Sudan and Central Africa initially led a nomadic lifestyle. The main economic activity was cattle breeding. Breeding a large number of herbivores required large territories - cattle quickly trampled and ate vegetation, it was necessary to look for new pastures and even cut down forests. In the Congo, 2/3 of the population is occupied with agriculture: bananas, rice, corn - agricultural land and pastures occupy only 3.5% of the total area, but give 55% of GDP. Two sectors: subsistence agriculture (main labor force) and commercial - export (plantations)