The main stages of the formation of modern man. The main stages of human evolution

First step- the emergence of the ancestors of primates. The oldest primitive primates arose at the end of the Cretaceous period, their ancestors were the oldest placental mammals - endotheria. Anthropologists believe that the ancestral form of primates was a small pre-Tertiary ancestor of insectivorous type tuppaii (rat-sized), leading a semi-arboreal lifestyle. The oldest primates originated in Asia, from where they settled on the continents of the Old World and moved to North America. It was the primitive forms of primates (particularly the tarsiers) that gave rise to the original forms of New and Old World monkeys. The emergence of primates according to paleontology falls on a period of approximately 60 million years.

The ancestors of primitive insectivorous mammals survived under the dominance of reptiles by feeding on insects. Reptiles almost did not eat insects. In ancient mammals, thanks to the care of their parents, the offspring survived in greater numbers and were less dependent on the environment, in addition, according to paleontologists, ancient mammals had small body sizes, led a twilight or nocturnal lifestyle. Some insectivores led a terrestrial lifestyle, others adapted to life on trees, which led to changes in the structure of the body and limbs.

Some of the insectivores began to move by jumping, while the hind limbs became longer and more powerful than the front ones, and the claws on the toes of the hind legs became useless, they shortened, flattened and turned into nails. On the forelimbs, they remained claws, as they were necessary in order to cling to branches when jumping.

In other ancient insectivores, changes gradually occurred in the calcaneus of the foot, with the simultaneous development of the grasping abilities of the forelimbs, their fingers lengthened for a better grip on branches and the emergence of the ability of the thumb to oppose the rest, in order to cover thin branches. Thus, the suborder of tarsiers (therzioids) was formed.

The ability to keep the body in an upright position was developed under the influence of an arboreal lifestyle, which led to the fact that the spinal column became stronger, the back muscles were restructured, and the functions of the lower and upper limbs changed. The length of the muzzle was shortened, the skull was rounded. There were changes in the organs of vision, since it was necessary to accurately navigate and correctly assess the distances when jumping, so stereoscopic vision arose due to the movement of the eyes to the front side of the skull. This was a huge evolutionary gain for the tarsier compared to the ancestral forms of the primates. The progress of the organs of vision has led to a weakening of the role of smell, in comparison with land animals.

The ancestors of primitive arboreal primates developed adaptations for climbing. Their fore and hind limbs were specialized as grasping. They moved equally both vertically and horizontally, therefore, the descendants of this group became more and more similar to modern monkeys. The grasping abilities of the limbs led to the development of special receivers of tactile stimuli in the form of convex tactile pads covered with lines and patterns. In humans and monkeys, the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with papillary patterns. Animal movements became complex and varied, which led to the development of motor areas of the brain. Insect nutrition was supplemented with plant foods, which enriched the body with a variety of substances, and this stimulated the complication and growth of brain volume. This group of primates gave rise to a branch of prosimians (lemurs) at the beginning of the Paleogene.

The second stage is the appearance of real monkeys and human ancestors. ka. The study of the fossil remains of ancient monkeys and ancient people allows us to trace the emergence characteristic features person. Fossil broad-nosed primates have been found exclusively in the Upper Miocene layers near Santa Cruz (Patagonia, South America). The original forms for them were the North American tarsiers that penetrated into South America. The broad-nosed monkeys in America evolved in complete isolation from the Old World monkeys, and in the process natural selection reached a high level of evolution and a kind of specialization (tenacious tail). Despite a fairly high level of development, American cebus monkeys (which include the modern coatu monkey) could not be human ancestors.

Fossil remains of lower narrow-nosed monkeys, which were the ancestors of man, are found in large numbers in layers from the lower Oligocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene of the Old World. Fossil monkeys, which include apidium, oreopithecus, macaques and baboons, were widespread in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The origin of the Old World monkeys is still debatable, it was believed that they are descended from lemurs, but their origin from tarsiers is more likely. The ancestral form for later great apes and, accordingly, hominids is the lower Oligocene propliopithecus, it was from him that the evolution of the “small anthropoid apes” of the gibbon type began, the intermediate link of which is pliopithecus. Another branch is the line of large fossil great apes, represented in the Miocene by Sivapithecus, Dryopithecus and other forms. .

Only in the Old World, starting from the Lower Oligocene, paleontologists find the remains of fossil anthropoid apes (appendices 1.2).

Miocene - the period of development of higher apes. Numerous remains of various anthropomorphic species are known from the Miocene deposits in Europe, India, and Equatorial Africa. Their common name is dryopithecus (an ancient arboreal anthropomorphic monkey that lived during the Oligocene era), although some of them were not purely arboreal creatures, as they do not have a specialization for brachiation. (moving along the branches of trees only with the help of hands, intercepting the branches with one or the other hand; legs pressed to the stomach or extended), and to move on the ground on four limbs. They are considered the "generalized" form. Their habitat was a dry forest biotope.

Dryopithecus - the oldest anthropomorphic monkeys, are very close to the African higher apes, and in some features some of their forms are more similar to humans than modern anthropoids.

Two types of Dryopithecus are well described: Fontanov's Dryopithecus and Darwin's Dryopithecus. An analysis of the preserved bones of Fontanov's Dryopithecus led paleontologists to the conclusion that they are similar to the bones of living Banobu pygmy chimpanzees, and the remains of the skeletons of Darwin's Dryopithecus and other Dryopithecus species are similar to the skeletons of gorillas and chimpanzees.

The third stage - the appearance of man. In 1934-1955, fragments of different types of great apes were found, which have many similarities with humans. From 1924 to 1949, there were numerous fragmentary fossils of anthropomorphic apes belonging to the great primates in South Africa. These primates were combined into one subfamily of Australopithecus (three genera with five species). Australopithecus (Greek - southern monkey) - upright, terrestrial, gregarious, mammal. The common name of several species of ancient anthropomorphic monkeys (Appendix 3).

Australopithecus are close in structure to the African higher apes, but they simultaneously show great resemblance to humans, so they are classified as hominids. This similarity: fitness for bipedia (movement on two hind limbs), in the structure of the teeth, the features of the skull.

Bipedal gait was different from human and was imperfect, since the structure of the pelvis and femur is different from human. The milk and permanent teeth of Australopithecus are similar to human teeth. The skull of the Paranthropus (one of the Australopithecus species) combines the features of higher apes and humans. Pragnathism is weakly expressed, the chin protrusion is completely absent, but the facial skeleton is powerful and thick.

Thus, on the African continent in the period from 1 to 4 million years ago, there lived creatures that, in terms of the method of movement (bipedia), the structure of their teeth, were closer to people than to antpropomorphic monkeys, but in the shape of the endocran they are more similar to chimpanzees than to man. In terms of brain volume (the absolute value is approximately 500 - 700 cm 3), they were significantly inferior to humans and slightly superior to modern chimpanzees and gorillas (435 - 500 cm 3, respectively). Their body weight was less than that of modern chimpanzees and gorillas. The foot was similar to a human, but the hand was archaic. They had a sagittal crest, did not have a chin protrusion, and a superciliary ridge stood out on the face. Creatures could communicate with each other using sound signals in the form of screams. The significance of the finds lies in the fact that Australopithecus fills a gap in the chain of creatures leading from animals to humans, and speaks in favor of recognizing Africa as the ancestral home of man. Australopithecus belongs to the hominid family ( includes modern man and his predecessors) as a subfamily of Australopithecus.

The skulls of baboons found together with Australopithecus bore traces of strong splitting blows, which indicates hunting for baboons with the help of long bones of ungulates. Australopithecus used humerus, femur and tibia bones as percussion instruments, horns as piercing tools, and blades, palate bones, etc. as cutting plates and scrapers.

In 1959, the skull of a creature similar to Australopithecus was discovered. According to some features, the skull belongs to Paranthropus (sagittal crest, small sizes of fangs and incisors, flat forehead, etc.), according to others - Australopithecus (high vault of the skull, deep palate, etc.), but there are many features, sharply distinguishing it from other Australopithecus, it was first identified in a special genus - Zinjanthropus. The zygomatic region of the temporal bone is unusually well developed, there are features in the structure of the skull. At the same time, remains were found there that differed from the remains of the Zinjanthropus and were more similar to humans, which were later designated in 1964 as inert remains belonging to the species Homo habiis - "handy man".

In 1891-1893, the anatomist and physician Eugene Dubois found the remains of a creature called Pithecanthropus on the island of Java ( geographic option Homo erectus (pithekos - monkey, antropos - man), refers to archanthropes. This term was introduced into biology, and later it began to be used in anthropology, by C. Darwin, who suggested that there once existed between man and ape intermediate , called Pithecanthropus . The teeth differ in type: the molars are similar to the teeth of an orangutan, and the premolars are similar to the teeth of a modern person. The capacity of the skull of the cerebral region was approximately 900 cm 3 (in modern man, about 1400 cm 3). The forehead is sloping, similar to the forehead of a chimpanzee. The vault of the skull is low, the occipital region is flattened from above, the chin is barely marked. There is a supraorbital ridge in the form of a canopy. The brain is close to the human brain, but primitive, since the frontal gyrus is less developed than in humans. The frontal cover is located higher, the orbital surface of the frontal lobe is more open - a feature that is pronounced in higher monkeys. The parietal lobe is less developed than in humans. The femur resembles a human one in its structure and size, the creature's height was approximately 165-170 cm.

In the limestone caves near Beijing in the early 1920s, more than 40 partial skeletons of synanthropes were found - men and women of different ages. Sinanthropus had a skull with massive supraorbital ridges, a low and sloping forehead, similar to the skull of Pithecanthropus. The jaws are massive, there is no chin, the nose is wide and flat. The brain cavity was larger than that of Pithecanthropus, from 850 cm 3 to 1220 cm 3 , along the elevation of the parietal region, the brain of Sinanthropus is transitional in relation to the brain of a Neanderthal, but pointed and turned downwards, like in African anthropoids. Strong protrusion of the upper jaw (prognathism) speaks of primitive features. Sinanthropes knew how to make tools, which is proved by the fact that their hands were free, and they moved on two legs. The growth of synanthropes, determined by the length of the femur, was 162 cm for men and 152 cm for women.

In 1907, near the city of Heidelberg, a jaw with teeth of an anthropoid was discovered, which received - heidelberg man, which had specific features of the structure of the jaws, and the structure of the teeth is almost the same as the teeth of a modern person. His fangs do not have a conical shape, they do not protrude above the common row of teeth, and there are no diastemas.

Pithecanthropes, Sinanthropes Heidelberg man and other representatives of this species of man are united under the name "archanthropes" (old people). The bone remains of archanthropes are known from the Early and Middle Pleistocene of Asia, Africa and Europe (their age is determined from 1.9 million years to 360 thousand years). All of the listed representatives of fossil hominids belong to the species Homo erectus - a straight man . All archnanthropes had a high brow and a powerful supraorbital ridge, a sloping forehead, a low cranial vault with a flattened occipital region, strong prognathism, and the absence of a chin protrusion of the lower jaw. The gait was somewhat awkward, as the pelvic bones were fused. It is believed that the presence of endocranes indicates the growth of cortical fields that regulate directional movements of the hands, the development of zones that provide analysis of signals from visual, auditory and tactile centers, which allowed the brain to improve sound signaling (there was no articulate speech, but the existence of certain signals is possible). Pithecanthropes lived as a primitive herd in which instinctive forms of mutual assistance (between a mother and her children) were developed; conscious forms were hardly common, they manifested themselves only in conditions of certain types of activity (hunting and protection from enemies). Sick or infirm group members were simply left to fend for themselves without assistance.

Pithecanthropes settled on all the continents of the Old World, even penetrating the islands of Oceania and surviving the Ice Age, died out in Africa and Europe with the advent of the Neanderthal, and on the islands of Oceania about 100 thousand years ago with the advent of the Cro-Magnon. Anthropologists say that the main reason for the extinction of the Pithecanthropus is competition with the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon, as with more advanced species.

The discovery of Pithecanthropus was extremely important, since even earlier in 1848 fossil skulls and fragments of the Neanderthal skeleton were found, but Neanderthals are less primitive in their organization than Pithecanthropes, most importantly, Neanderthals almost did not differ from modern humans in terms of brain volume. The discovery of Pithecanthropus was the most important proof of Darwin's theory about the origin of man from higher apes.

The next stage of anthropogenesis is associated with the appearance of ancient people - paleoanthropes. Paleoanthropes is a common name for fossil humans who are more advanced than archanthropes but less than neoanthropes. The bone remains of paleoanthropes are known from the Middle and Late Pleistocene of Europe, Asia and Africa, the age of the remains found dates from 250 to 40 thousand years (according to some sources, it is believed that Pithecanthropes died out 28 - 30 thousand years ago), a number of anthropologists are of the opinion that the first Neanderthals appeared much earlier than about 1.5 million years.

The first finds of the remains of paleoanthropes (skull) were made in 1848 in the Gibraltar fortress. In 1956, the skull and bones of a paleoanthrope were discovered near the Neandertal River near Düsseldorf. By the name of the river, this species of paleoanthropes was named the Neanderthal. According to the time of existence and morphological (external) features, two groups of Neanderthals are distinguished. The early ones lived from 1.5 million years ago until the glaciation period, the later ones appeared during ice age about 400 thousand years ago. The following features are characteristic: a vertical profile of the face, a reduced chin relief (the chin has not formed to the extent that is inherent in a modern person), a more progressive structure of the teeth, a brain volume from 1200 to 1400 (reached 1600 cm 3). They had a strongly developed brow, the back of the head was compressed from behind, the facial opening was wide, the presence of an occipital ridge, and some other features distinguish them from modern humans. Their upper limbs were well developed, they were mobile, and the manipulative abilities of the hand provided a significant power grip. Growth is not high (155 - 165 cm), shoulders are wide, physically strong, the proportions of the body are close to the proportions of a modern person, but the body was barrel-shaped, although some anthropologists believe that such remains could belong to the sick. The gait was somewhat awkward, as the pelvic bones were still fused. According to anthropologists, the Neanderthal had speech, albeit imperfect (in the form of babbling).

The ability for articulate speech is determined by the structure of such structures as: bending the root of the tongue into the laryngeal cavity, strengthening the vocal cords, growing inwards the edges of the arytenoid cartilages of the larynx. The presence of all of the above would indicate a clear differentiation of sounds, since the inhaled air would be well divided into the upper jet (nasal) and lower (oral). The movable tongue allows you to pronounce different sounds clearly (dental, palatal, labial). However, the massive lower jaws of archanthropes and paleoanthropes indicate that a quick change in articulation and fluency of speech was impossible. Therefore, the improvement of speech is associated not only with the development of the brain, but also with the gradual morphological transformations of the facial skeleton.

Among Neanderthals, the first indirect evidence of social organization is found, which manifested itself in evidence of concern for members of the collective. This is evidenced by Neanderthal burials, as well as the discovery of overgrown limb fractures on the bones of people. An injured hunter could not survive without the help of other members of the group, who at least provided him with food for a long time. In addition, the bones of people whose age at the time of death was 40-50 years old were found, they were very old people, practically incapable of working, but probably possessing knowledge and skills in making tools, so their life was valuable for members of society . This species of man was well adapted to the harsh living conditions during the great glaciation. They were skilled hunters, since only a sufficient amount of meat and warm animal skins could ensure the survival of a group (consisting of 20-25 people of different ages) in a cold climate.

The main reason for the extinction of the Neanderthal, despite their excellent adaptation to the harsh conditions of their habitat, anthropologists call competition with the appeared Cro-Magnon, as with a more perfect species. In their opinion, despite the rather large volume of the brain, the Neanderthal was not as smart, his brain was not as flexible as the Cro-Magnon man who lived with him at the same time and in the same territories. The Cro-Magnon gradually pushed the Neanderthal from the best hunting grounds to places where there were few animals, which contributed to the extinction of paleoanthropes. In the society of the Neanderthals, as well as, probably, the Pithecanthropes, and later the Cro-Magnons, there was cannibalism or anthropophagy. This is evidenced by split skulls and burnt bones of the limbs split along the length, from which the bone marrow was extracted. Due to the lack of food, the size of the group could probably decrease for these reasons as well.

According to another version, the extinction of the Neanderthals is more related to the imperfection of the birth canal of women, since their pelvic bones were fused. The head of the fetus was large, the bones of the mother during childbirth could not always diverge sufficiently, so the death of the mother and child was very likely, the number of Neanderthals practically did not increase, and the environmental conditions were harsh. The total number of the species, despite the huge habitat (Europe, the Middle East, Africa) was small (approximately 20,000 thousand individuals), and low reproduction rates contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals.

The last of the known stages of human evolution began, according to anthropologists, from about 200 to 100 thousand years ago with the emergence of neoanthropes (some of modern anthropologists believe that neoanthropes appeared much earlier, about 500 thousand years ago, but were few in number, occupied a small territory and earlier remains have not yet been found), which were the direct ancestors of modern man. The first discovery of a neoanthrope was made in 1868 in the grotto of Cro-Magnon (on the territory of the French province of Dordogne), he was called Cro-Magnon. These remains date back to 38 - 40 thousand years BC. In recent years, the remains of a person belonging to the Cro-Magnon type have been found; they are dated at 60 and 100 thousand years BC. Cro-Magnons were quite consistent anthropological type modern man, the differences were insignificant, a somewhat lower cranial vault, teeth are more developed, the brain volume is 1400 - 1500 cm 3. The jaw apparatus of the Cro-Magnon is smaller than that of the Neanderthal, the chin is well developed, the supraorbital ridge is absent, there is no supraorbital constriction, the cranial vault is high, the frontal lobes are well developed, graceful physique, thin bones. Neoanthrope sites have been found throughout Europe, not in the Pamirs, in Central Asia, in Siberia, in Kamchatka. The social organization of the Cro-Magnons probably did not differ much from the social organization of the Neanderthals, but subsequently they improved and complicated their relations, which led to the formation of a clan first, and then a tribe. The biological evolution of man has ended, the average rate of this process can be estimated from the rate of increase in the brain of hominids, which was about 50 cm 3 per 100,000 years.

During this period, man settled around the world, mastering various natural areas. Modern anthropological studies have shown that Australia was inhabited about 60-70 thousand years ago, where the Cro-Magnon man came through Indonesia. At the same time, on the island of Java, he encountered a Pithecanthropus, which could not stand the competition and died out, and in Europe, Western and Central Asia with a Neanderthal. America was settled approximately 12-15 thousand years ago through China. Through Kamchatka, Chukotka and along the Bering Bridge, the Cro-Magnon came to Alaska, then mastered North America, then Central and South. The settlement of America lasted an average of 1-2 thousand years. Evidence of this way of settlement is the same technique for making tools (the technology for making knives is identical throughout America). Findings of the remains of neoanthropes indicate that racial variants begin to appear in them, which is certainly associated with the influence of environmental conditions, that is, those natural conditions where a person lived.

Thus, the main feature of human evolution is the strengthening of the complex of signs of the hominid triad characteristic of humans: upright posture, manipulative abilities of the hand, an increase in the mass of the brain and the complication of its structure and function. Bipedalism led to the gradual structural transformation of the upper and lower extremities, spinal column, pelvic girdle, chest, and body proportions. The strong development of the brain, an increase in its mass, the development of the anterior frontal and parietal lobes, the development of speech all contributed to the development of a unique phenomenon - the human psyche.

The most ancient stone tools are found in East Africa, North and South Asia. It was in these areas that australopithecines. They were more ape-like than human, although they could walk on two legs. It is generally accepted that Australopithecus used sticks and sharp stones as weapons, but, most likely, did not yet know how to handle them.

Approximately 1.0 million - 700 thousand years ago, a period begins, which is called early Paleolithic(from Greek. "paleo" - "ancient" And "cast"- "stone"). Excavations in France, near the villages of Shell and Saint-Achel, made it possible to find the remains of caves and ancient settlements, where successive generations of predecessors of modern man lived for tens of thousands of years. Subsequently, such finds were discovered in other places.

Archaeological research has made it possible to trace how the tools of labor and hunting changed. Tools made of bone and sharpened stone (points, scrapers, axes) became more and more perfect and durable. The physical type of a person changed: he more and more adapted to moving on the ground without the help of hands, the volume of the brain increased.

So, the volume of the brain of a great ape was about 300-600 cubic meters. cm, Australopithecus - 600-700 cu. cm, Pithecanthropus - 800-870 cu. see, Sinanthropus and Heidelberg man - more than 1000 cubic meters. see, Neanderthal - 1300-1700 cu. see, modern man - 1400-1800 cubic meters. cm.

The most important achievement of the early Paleolithic was the mastery of the ability to use fire (about 200-300 thousand years ago) to heat the home, cook food, and protect against predators.

Initially, people did not know how to kindle a fire. Its source was accidental forest and steppe fires, the extracted fire was constantly maintained in the hearths. The ancient Greek legend about Prometheus, who stole the knowledge of fire from the gods, is probably an echo of the memory of very old times.

The period of the early Paleolithic period ends with a sharp change in the natural conditions of the existence of primitive people. The onset of glaciers began, approximately 100 thousand years ago, covering almost the entire territory of Russia, Central and Western Europe. Many herds of primitive Neanderthal hunters could not adapt to the new conditions of existence. Between them, the struggle for diminished sources of food intensified.

By the end of the early Paleolithic (about 30-20 thousand years BC), Neanderthals completely disappeared in Eurasia and Africa. Established everywhere man of the modern, Cro-Magnon type.

World religions proceeded from ideas about the creation of man higher powers. In the 19th century, during the period of domination of natural-scientific views, a view was formed in science according to which man is the product of a long, gradual evolution. However, in the 20th century, the idea of ​​an extraterrestrial origin of man began to spread in popular science literature.

The fact is that modern science does not have indisputable data on the immediate ancestors of a person of the modern type. It is assumed that he could not be a product of the evolution of Neanderthals, which represented a dead end branch of evolution. In other words, the most important, transitional link has not yet been found in the chain of successive human predecessors.

Under the influence of differences in natural conditions, the main races of people.

Racial characteristics are very diverse. The most obvious are pigmentation (coloration of the skin and hair), the shape of the skull, the development and shape of the hairline (beard, mustache, head hair), eye shape, height. The use of modern research methods includes the analysis of the prevailing blood groups, papillary patterns on the fingers, and the shape of the teeth.

There is no data proving the existence of any races of mental, psychic, physiological and other advantages over the rest. All of them belong to a single biological species of “reasonable man” (Homo sapiens).

The main races usually include Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Oceanic (Australoid).

The main features of the Negroid races are usually attributed to dark skin pigmentation, coarse curly hair, weak growth of a beard and mustache, and a protruding front of the skull. The Negroid race formed African continent, although archaeologists find traces of her residence in southern Europe.

The Mongoloids are dominated by dark, straight hair, they are characterized by a specific cut of the eyes, a facial skeleton with protruding cheekbones. The Mongoloids lived in Southeast, East, Central and partially - Central Asia, in Siberia, on the islands of Polynesia and in America.

Caucasoids are characterized by soft hair, a strong development of the hairline, a developed profile of the facial skeleton, and a protruding nose. During the Mesolithic period, Caucasoids lived in Europe, Western and Central Asia, on the Hindustan Peninsula.

As a separate large race, it is also customary to single out the oceanic race, whose representatives lived in small groups over a vast territory from South Asia to Australia and Oceania. A distinctive feature of this race is a combination of Negroid and Caucasian features.

The big races are by no means homogeneous. So, for example, for Caucasians of the north, the predominance of blond hair and blue eyes is typical. Caucasians of the south are distinguished by a darker skin color and darker hair. On the borders of residence of large races, transitional racial groups have developed. Thus, mulattos, the Ethiopian race, ethnic groups living in Sudan are transitional between Caucasian and Negroid races. A mixed form between Caucasoids and Asian Mongoloids were some peoples of Siberia, the Trans-Urals and Central Asia.

The study of the history of races and the nature of their settlement around the globe - the most important source knowledge about the life of peoples, their origin.

Man masters his planet

Epoch Mesolithic(from Greek. "mesos" - "middle" And "cast" - "stone") covers the period from XX to IX-VIII millennium BC It is characterized by a new change in natural conditions, which are becoming more favorable: the glaciers are retreating, new territories are becoming available for settlement.

During this period, the population of the Earth did not exceed 10 million people. This is not much, but with the predominance of the economy of the appropriating type (hunting, fishing, gathering), it was necessary to constantly expand the territory of hunting grounds. The weakest tribes were forced out to the periphery of the inhabited world. Approximately 25 thousand years ago, man first entered the American continent, about 20 thousand years ago - to Australia.

The history of the settlement of America and Australia causes a lot of controversy. It is generally accepted that a person could have been on these continents even before the end of the ice age, when the ocean level was about 100 m lower than the modern one and there were land bridges connecting these continents with Eurasia. At the same time, scientists, noting that there were several waves of migration to overseas continents, prove that already at the dawn of their history, people could cross wide water spaces. The Norwegian explorer T. Heyerdahl, in order to prove the correctness of this point of view, crossed the Pacific Ocean on a raft made using technologies that could be available to man during the Mesolithic.

In the Mesolithic era, it originates and becomes widespread rock painting. In the remains of dwellings of that time, archaeologists find figurines depicting people, animals, beads and other decorations. All this indicates the onset of a new stage in the knowledge of the world. Abstract symbols and generalized concepts that arose with the development of speech acquire, as it were, an independent life in drawings and figurines. Many of them were associated with rituals, rituals of primitive magic.

The greatest mystery for man was himself, the process of cognition, understanding the nature of intellectual activity and the abilities associated with it. Primitive magic was built on the belief in the possibility of words, symbolic actions and drawings to influence distant objects and other people, in the special significance of dreams. Early beliefs sometimes did indeed have a certain rational basis. However, they often became fetters for further knowledge of the world.

The large role of chance in people's lives gave rise to attempts to improve the situation in hunting, in life. So there was a belief in signs, favorable or unfavorable. Fetishism appeared - the belief that certain objects (talismans) have a special magical power. Among them were figurines of animals, stones, amulets supposedly bringing good luck to their owner. Beliefs arose, for example, that a warrior who drank the blood of an enemy or ate his heart acquires special strength. Hunting, treating the sick, choosing a couple (boys or girls) were preceded by ritual actions, among which dance and singing were of particular importance. Mesolithic people knew how to make percussion, wind, stringed and plucked musical instruments.

Particular importance was attached to funeral rituals, which became more and more complex over time. In ancient burials, archaeologists find jewelry and tools that people used during their lifetime, food supplies. This proves that already at the dawn of history there were widespread beliefs in the existence of the other world, where a person lives after death.

Gradually, faith in higher powers was strengthened, which could both help and harm. It was assumed that they could be cajoled by sacrifice, most often - part of the booty, it had to be left in a certain place. Some tribes practiced human sacrifice.

It was believed that some people have great abilities to communicate with higher powers, spirits. Gradually, along with the leaders (they usually became the strongest, most successful, experienced hunters), priests (shamans, sorcerers) began to play a prominent role in the life of primitive tribes. They usually knew the healing properties of herbs, perhaps had some hypnotic abilities and had a great influence on their fellow tribesmen.

At present, science has a significant amount of paleoanthropological, archaeological, and geological data that make it possible to shed light on the course of anthropogenesis (in general terms). An analysis of this information gives grounds to single out four conditional stages (segments) of anthropogenesis, characterized by a certain type of fossil man, the level of development of material culture and social institutions:

1) australopithecines (predecessors of man);

2) Pithecanthropes (the most ancient people, archanthropes);

3) Neanderthals (ancient people, paleoanthropes);

4) man modern type, fossil and modern (neoanthropes).

In accordance with zoological systematics, the classification of hominids is as follows:

Family - Hominidae

Subfamily Australopithecinae - Australopithecus

Genus Australopithecus - Australopithecus

A. afarensis - A. afarsky A. robustus - A. powerful A. boisei - A boyes and others.

Subfamily Homininae - Humans

Genus Homo - Man

N. erectus - Man straightened

N. sapiens neanderthalensis - Neanderthal reasonable man

N. sapiens sapiens - Homo sapiens reasonable.

Autralopithecines (predecessors of man)

Paleontological and modern biological (to a greater extent) data have confirmed the theory of Darwin about the origin of man and modern anthropologists from a common initial form.

Establishing a specific hominoid ancestor remains a challenge to modern science. Its existence is associated with a large group of African dryopithecus that flourished in the Miocene - Pliocene (the Miocene extends within 22-27 million years, the Pliocene - within 5-10 million years), leading from the Oligocene Egyptopithecus (30 million years). In the 50-60s. one of the driopithecus, the proconsul, was put forward as a "model" of the common ancestor of hominids and pongids. The Miocene dryopithecus were semi-terrestrial-semi-arboreal apes that lived in humid tropical, mountainous or ordinary broad-leaved forests, as well as forest-steppe regions. Finds of Miocene and Lower Pliocene Dryopithecus are also known in Greece, Hungary and Georgia.

Two branches of evolution diverged from the common initial form: the first, pongid, led after many millions of years to modern anthropoid apes, the second, hominid, to the appearance, ultimately, of a man of the modern anatomical type. These two branches developed independently of each other in different adaptive directions over many millions of years. In accordance with the natural and landscape conditions, in each of them specific features of the biological organization were formed, corresponding to the way of life.

A branch of higher apes evolved in the direction of adaptation to an arboreal lifestyle, to brachiator-type locomotion with all the ensuing anatomical features: lengthening of the forelimbs and shortening of the hind limbs, reduction of the thumb, lengthening and narrowing of the pelvic bones, development of ridges on the skull, a sharp predominance of the facial region skulls over the brain, etc.

The human branch of evolution, on the contrary, developed in the direction of adapting to a terrestrial lifestyle, upright walking, freeing the forelimbs from the function of support and locomotion, using them to use natural objects as tools, and later on to the manufacture of artificial tools, which was decisive in separating a person from natural world. The fulfillment of these tasks required lengthening of the lower and shortening of the upper limbs, while the foot lost its grasping functions and turned into an organ of support for the straightened body, the brain, the main coordinating brain organ, developed rapidly, and, accordingly, the part of the skull becomes predominant; there is a disappearance of the ridges, the supraorbital ridge, the formation of a chin protrusion on the lower jaw, etc.

The next important question of evolutionary anthropology is: when did an independent branch of human evolution arise and who was its first representative? Averaging the estimates obtained by paleontologists and geneticists gives us a period of 8-6 million years. Geneticists calculate the time of separation of the two branches of evolution based on the genetic differences of modern hominoids and the estimated time of its occurrence.

As possible ancestors of hominids, in addition to Ramapithecus (the latter is often considered a link in the evolution of orangutans), European higher primates are called: Rudapitek and Ouranopithecus, African Kenyapithecus (a descendant of more ancient proconsuls from the “driopithecus circle”), Lufengopitek (Chinese Ramapithecus).

Australopithecus represent one of the first stages of human evolution. They may be regarded by the most cautious investigators as the forerunners of all fossils and modern humans. Australopithecus - the most interesting object in modern human paleontology - has become known to science since the 30s of our century. The first find of Australopithecus was made in the south of the African continent. It represented the remains of the skull and the natural ebb of its brain part, belonging to a child.

The analysis of the "cub from Taung" showed that a number of structural features differ from the type of anthropoids and at the same time resemble modern humans. The find caused a lot of controversy: some ranked it among the fossil anthropoids, others - among the fossil hominids. Subsequent finds of South African Australopithecus demonstrated the presence of two morphological types - graceful and massive Australopithecus. Initially, they belonged to two independent genera. Several hundred African Australopithecus are currently known. South and East African massive and graceful variants of Australopithecus are assigned to different species. South African species lived in the interval of 3-1 million years, and East African - 4 or more - 1 million years.

Modern anthropologists have no doubt that Australopithecus is an intermediate type between the great apes and man. The main difference from the former is bipedal locomotion, which is reflected in the structure of the trunk skeleton and some features of the skull (median position of the foramen magnum). The large width of the pelvic bones, associated with the attachment of the gluteal and part of the spinal muscles that straighten the body, proves the vertical position of the body. Part of the abdominal muscles is also attached to the pelvic skeleton, supporting the internal organs when walking with a straightened body.

The landscape environment of Australopithecus - steppe and forest-steppe - required the development of the ability to move on two legs. Sometimes anthropoids demonstrate this ability. For Australopithecus, bipedia was a constant feature. It has been experimentally proven that bipedal gait is energetically more favorable than other types of locomotion in primates.

Signs of a modern type human were found on the lower jaws. Relatively small fangs and incisors do not protrude above the general level of the teeth. Rather large molars have a "human" pattern of tubercles on the chewing surface, referred to as the "driopithecus pattern". The structure of the teeth and the joint of the lower jaw testify to the predominance of lateral movements in the act of chewing, which is not characteristic of anthropoids. The jaws of Australopithecus are more massive than those of modern humans. The vertical profile of the facial region and its relatively small overall size are close to the human type. The brow protrudes forward; the brain cavity is small; the occipital region tends to be rounded.

The volume of the brain cavity of australopithecines is small: graceful australopithecines - an average of 450 cm3, massive australopithecines - 517 cm3, anthropoids - 480 cm3, that is, almost three times less than that of a modern person: 1450 cm3. Thus, progress in the development of the brain on the basis of the absolute size of the brain in the type of Australopithecus is practically not visible. The relative size of the brain of Australopithecus, in some cases, was greater than that of anthropoids.

Among the South African forms, “African Australopithecus” and “Powerful Australopithecus” stand out clearly. The latter can be characterized as follows: a stocky creature with a body length of 150-155 cm and a weight of about 70 kg. The skull is more massive than that of the African Australopithecus, the lower jaw is stronger. A pronounced bony crest on the crown served to attach strong chewing muscles. The teeth are large (in absolute size), especially the molars, while the incisors are disproportionately small, so that the disproportion of the teeth is clearly visible. Such morphological features had a vegetarian Australopithecus, gravitating in its habitat to the line of the forest.

Australopithecus Africanus was smaller in size (graceful form): body length - up to 120 cm, and weight - up to 40 kg (Fig. I. 5). Judging by the bones of the body, the position of the body when walking was more straightened.

The structure of the teeth corresponded to adaptation to omnivorousness with a large proportion of meat food. Australopithecus were engaged in gathering and hunting, possibly using the hunting trophies of other predators. When hunting baboons, Australopithecus used stones as a throwing weapon. R. Dart created the original concept of the Australopithecus pre-culture - "osteodontokeratic culture", that is, the constant use of parts of the animal skeleton as tools. It was suggested that the mental activity of Australopithecus became more complex: this was evidenced by the high level of their tool activity and the developed gregariousness. The prerequisites for these achievements were bipedalism and a developing hand.

Of interest are the finds of Australopithecus and similar forms made in East Africa, in particular, in the Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). Anthropologist L. Leakey conducted research here for 40 years. He singled out five stratigraphic layers, which made it possible to establish the temporal dynamics of the most ancient hominids and their culture in the early Pleistocene.

Initially, the skull of a massive australopithecine was discovered in Olduvai Gorge, named "Zinjanthropus bois" ("The Nutcracker"), later renamed "Australopithecine boisova". This find is confined to the upper half of layer I (age 2.3-1.4 Ma). Notable are the archaic stone tools found here in the form of flakes with traces of retouching. The researchers were confused by the combination of stone culture and the primitive morphological type of Australopithecus. Later, in layer I below the Zinjanthropus, bones of the skull and hand of a more advanced human being were found. It was he, the so-called Homo habilis (Handy Man), who owned the ancient tools of Olduvai.

As for the Zinjanthropus (A. boisei), in the evolution of Australopithecus, it continues the line of adaptation of massive forms to a predominant diet of plant foods. This australopithecine is larger than the "powerful australopithecine" and is distinguished by a less perfect ability for bipedal walking (Fig. I. 6).

Of great importance is the fact of the coexistence of two types of early hominids, Australopithecus Boyce and Homo habilis, proved by the fossil materials of the Olduvai Gorge, especially since they differ very markedly in morphology and ways of adaptation.

The remains of habilis in the Olduvai Gorge are not isolated: they always coexist with the Pebble (Olduvai) culture, ancient culture Paleolithic. Some anthropologists dispute the generic name

Rice. I. 6. Skull of a supermassive Australopithecus (“Boysova”) (1.9 million years)

habilis - "Nomo", preferring to call him "skillful Australopithecus". For most specialists, habilis is the oldest representative of the genus Homo. He not only used suitable items for his needs surrounding nature, but also modified them. The antiquity of Homo habilis is 1.9 - 1.6 million years. Findings of this hominid are known in South and East Africa.

Homo habilis had a body length of up to 120 cm, with a weight of up to 40-50 kg. The structure of the jaw gives out its ability to be omnivorous (a feature of a person). It differs from Zinjanthropus habilis in a large volume of the brain cavity (volume - 660 cm3), as well as in the bulge of the cranial vault, especially in the occipital region. The lower jaw of habilis is more graceful than that of other australopithecines, the teeth are smaller. In connection with a fairly perfect bipedal walking, the big toe could move, like in humans, only in the vertical direction, and the foot had arches. The body of the habilis was almost straight. Thus, bipedia as one of the main achievements of anthropogenesis took shape very early. The hand changed more slowly. There is no perfect opposition of the thumb to the rest, its dimensions, judging by the bone elements, are small. The phalanges of the fingers are curved, which is not typical for a modern person, but the terminal phalanges are flat.

In the layers of the Oluvai Gorge (age from 1.2-1.3 million years), bone remains of forms were found that can be interpreted as transitional from the type of progressive Australopithecus to the type of Pithecanthropus. Pithecanthropus has also been discovered in this locality.

It is difficult to interpret and classify forms similar to the Australopithecus of Africa, but found outside this mainland. So, on the island of Java, a fragment of the lower jaw of a higher primate was discovered, the overall dimensions of which significantly exceeded the dimensions of modern humans and the largest monkeys. He received the name "Meganthropus Paleo-Javanese". Currently, it is often referred to the Australopithecus group.

All these australopithecines and early representatives of the genus Homo were preceded in time by the graceful "Afar Australopithecus" (A. afarensis), the bone remains of which were discovered in Ethiopia and Tanzania. The antiquity of representatives of this species is 3.9-3.0 million years. The happy discovery of a very complete skeleton of the subject, named "Lucy", allows us to represent the Afar australopithecines as follows. Body dimensions are very small: body length - 105-107 cm, weight slightly exceeded 29 kg. In the structure of the skull, jaws and teeth, very primitive signs were noted. The skeleton is adapted to a bipedal gait, although different from a human one. The study of footprints in volcanic ash (antiquity - at least 3.6 million years) leads to the conclusion that the Afar australopithecines did not fully extend their legs at the hip joint, and when walking they crossed their feet, placing them one in front of the other. The foot combines progressive features (large and adducted first toe, pronounced arch, formed heel) and monkey-like features (the dance is not motionless). The proportions of the upper
and lower extremities correspond to upright posture, but there are clear signs adaptation to arboreal locomotion. In the hand, progressive signs are also combined with archaic ones (relative shortening of the fingers) associated with the ability for arboreal locomotion. Signs of "force capture" characteristic of hominids are not observed. As primitive features of the skull, a strong protrusion of the facial region and a developed occipital relief should be noted. Protruding fangs and diastemas between the teeth of the upper and lower jaws look archaic even against the background of other Australopithecus. The molars are very large and massive. The absolute size of the brain of the Afar Australopithecus is indistinguishable from the size of anthropomorphic monkeys, but its relative size is somewhat larger. Individual Afar individuals have a clear "chimpanzoic" morphology, proving a not so distant separation of the evolutionary branches of hominids and pongids.

Some neurologists believe that in very ancient representatives of Australopithecus it is already possible to fix the structural restructuring of the parietal, occipital and temporal regions of the brain; at the same time, among others, the external morphology of the brain is indistinguishable from that of a monkey. Brain restructuring could begin at the cellular level.

The most modern paleoanthropological discoveries make it possible to preliminarily identify the species of Australopithecus, which preceded the “Afarians” in time. These are the East African Australopithecus A. ramidus (Ethiopia) (represented by the lower jaw) and A. anamensis (Kenya); (represented by fragments of the chewing apparatus). The antiquity of both finds is about 4 million years. There are also more ancient finds of australopithecines that do not have a species definition. They fill the temporary hiatus between the oldest australopithecines and the hominoid ancestor.

Of great interest are the finds of early representatives of the genus Homo, made on the eastern shore of the lake. Turkana (Kenya). Progressive signs of Homo habilis "1470" include a brain volume of about 770 cm3 and a smoothed relief of the skull; antiquity - about 1.9 million years.

What place did tool activity occupy in the evolutionary achievements of Australopithecus? Anthropologists do not have a unanimous opinion regarding the indissolubility of the connection between tool activity and bipedal walking. Despite the finds of very ancient stone tool cultures, there is a significant gap in time between the emergence of bipedalism and the emergence of labor. It is assumed that the reason for the isolation of the first hominids from the animal world could be the transfer of the defensive function of the dental apparatus to artificial defense tools, and the use of tools became an effective adaptation in the behavior of the first people who settled the savannah. Monuments of the Olduvai culture did not clarify the question of the connection of Australopithecus with Olduvai tools. Thus, the fact of finding the bones of the progressive "habilis" and the massive Australopithecus in the same horizon with the Olduvai tools is known.

The oldest tools were found in more ancient horizons than the fragments of the first indisputable representatives of the genus Homo. Thus, the Paleolithic cultures in Kenya and Ethiopia are 2.5-2.6 million years old. The analysis of new materials shows that Australopithecus were only capable of using tools, but only representatives of the genus Homo were able to make them.

The Olduvai (pebble) era is the earliest in the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age). The most characteristic tools are massive archaic artifacts made from pebbles and fragments of stone, as well as stones - blanks (cores), tools on flakes. A typical Olduvai tool is a chopper. It was a pebble with a bevelled end, the unworked part of which served to hold the tool in the hand (Fig. I. 7). The blade could be worked on both sides; tools with several facets and just impact stones were also found. Olduvai tools differ in shape and size, but have the same type of blade. This is due to the purposefulness of actions to develop tools. Archaeologists note that already from the beginning of the Paleolithic there was a set of tools for various purposes. Finds of broken bones suggest that Australopithecus were hunters. Olduvai tools survive to late times, especially in South and Southeast Asia. The long existence of Olduvai (1.5 million years) was almost not accompanied by technical progress. Australopithecus could arrange simple shelters such as wind barriers.

Rice. I. 7. Olduvai culture of the Lower Paleolithic. Pithecanthropes
(earliest people, archanthropes)

Pithecanthropes are the second stadial group of hominids after Australopithecus. In this aspect, in the specialized literature they are often referred to (all variants of the group) as "archanthropes", i.e. "the most ancient people"; here you can also add the definition of "true people", since the belonging of Pithecanthropus to the family of hominids is not disputed by any of the anthropologists. Previously, some researchers combined Pithecanthropus with Neanderthals in one evolutionary stage.

Pithecanthropus finds are known in three parts of the world - Africa, Asia and Europe. Their ancestors were representatives of Homo habilis (later East African representatives of this species are often referred to as Homo rudolfensis). The time of existence of pithecanthropes (including the earliest ones, Homo ergaster) can be represented in the interval of 1.8 million years - less than 200 thousand years. The most ancient representatives of the stage were discovered in Africa (1.6 million years - 1.8 million years); since the turn of 1 million years, they have been common in Asia, and since 0.5 million years, pithecanthropes (often referred to as "preneanderthals", or representatives of Homo heidelbergensis) lived in Europe. The almost worldwide distribution of pithecanthropes can be explained by their rather high level of biological and social development. The evolution of various groups of Pithecanthropes occurred at different speeds, but had one direction - towards the sapiens type.

For the first time, the bone fragments of Pithecanthropus were discovered by the Dutch doctor E. Dubois on about. Java in 1891. It is noteworthy that the author of the find shared the concept of an “intermediate link” in the human genealogy, which belonged to the Darwinist E. Haeckel. Near the village of Trinil were found (successively) the upper molar, the skull cap and the femur. The archaic character of the cranial cover is impressive: a sloping forehead and a powerful supraorbital ridge and a completely modern type of femur. The layers containing the Trinil fauna date back to 700 thousand years ago (currently 500 thousand years). In 1894, G. Dubois first gave a scientific description of "Pitpecanthropus erectus" ("monkey-man erectus"). Some European scientists met such a phenomenal discovery with distrust, and Dubois himself often did not believe in its significance for science.

With an interval of 40 years, other finds of Pithecanthropes were made on about. Java and elsewhere. In the Pungat layers with the Dzhetis fauna near the village of Mojokerto, a baby skull of a Pithecanthropus was discovered. The age of the find is close to 1 million years. Findings of bones of the skull and skeleton were made in the Sangiran locality (ancient about 800 thousand years) during 1936-1941. The next series of finds near Sangiran refers to the period 1952-1973. The most interesting find was the skull of a Pithecanthropus with a preserved facial section of the skull, made in 1963. The remains of a Paleolithic culture on about. Java not found.

A fossil man similar to Pithecanthropus was found in the Middle Pleistocene deposits of China. The teeth of Sinanthropus (Chinese Pithecanthropus) were discovered in the limestone cave of Zhoukou-dian in 1918. The collection of random finds was replaced by excavations, and in 1937 the remains of more than 40 Sinanthropus individuals were discovered in this location (Fig. 1.8). The description of this variant of Pithecanthropus was first made by the Canadian specialist Vlekom. The absolute dating of Sinanthropus is estimated at 400-500 thousand years. The bone remains of Sinanthropus are accompanied by numerous cultural

remains (stone tools, crushed and burnt animal bones). Of greatest interest is the multi-meter thickness of ash found in the hunting camp of Sinanthropus. The use of fire for processing food made it more digestible, and the long-term maintenance of a fire indicates a fairly high level of development of social relations among Sinanthropes.

Multiple finds allow us to confidently speak about the reality of the Pithecanthropus taxon. Here are the main features of its morphotype. The modern type of the femurs and the position of the foramen magnum, similar to what we see on modern skulls, testify to the undoubted adaptation of Pithecanthropus to upright posture. The overall massiveness of the Pithecanthropus skeleton is greater than that of Australopithecus. Numerous archaic features are observed in the structure of the skull: a highly developed relief, a sloping frontal region, massive jaws, pronounced prognathism of the facial region. The walls of the skull are thick, the lower jaw is massive and wide, the teeth are large, while the size of the canine is close to modern. A highly developed occipital relief is associated with the development of the cervical muscles, which played a significant role in balancing the skull when walking. Estimates of the size of the brain of Pithecanthropes given in modern literature vary from 750 to 1350 cm3, i.e., approximately correspond at a minimum to the lower threshold of values ​​given for australopithecines of the Habilis type. Previously compared species were attributed a significant difference. The structure of the endocranes testified to the complication of the structure of the brain: to a greater extent, Pithecanthropes have developed areas of the parietal region, lower frontal and upper posterior parts of the frontal region, which is associated with the development of specific human functions - labor and speech. On the endocranes of synanthropes, new growth foci were found associated with the assessment of body position, speech, and fine movements.

Sinanthropus is somewhat different in type from Pithecanthropus. The length of its body was about 150 cm (Pithecanthropus - up to 165-175 cm), the dimensions of the skull were increased, but the type of structure was the same, with the exception of a weakened occipital relief. The skeleton of Sinanthropus is less massive. Noteworthy is the graceful lower jaw. The volume of the brain is more than 1000 cm3. The difference between the Sinanthropus and the Javanese Pithecanthropus is assessed at the subspecies level.

The nature of food residues, as well as the structure of the lower jaws, indicates a change in the type of feeding of synanthropes towards omnivorousness, which is a progressive sign. Sinanthropus is likely to have cannibalism. On the question of their ability to make fire, archaeologists disagreed.

Analysis of human bone remains of this phase of anthropogenesis allows us to reconstruct the age and sex composition of synanthropus groups: 3-6 males, 6-10 females and 15-20 children.

The comparative complexity of culture requires a sufficiently high level of communication and mutual understanding, therefore, it is possible to predict the existence of primitive speech at this time. The biological basis for such a prognosis can be considered an increase in the bone relief in the places of attachment of the muscles of the tongue, the beginning of the formation of the chin, and the gracilization of the lower jaws.

Fragments of skulls of antiquity, commensurate with the early Pithecanthropes of Fr. Java (approximately 1 million years old), found in two provinces of China - Lantian, Kuvanlin. It is interesting that the more ancient Chinese Pithecanthropes differ from the Sinanthropes in the same way as the early Pithecanthropes from the later ones, namely, in the greater massiveness of the bones and the smaller size of the brain. Late progressive Pithecanthropus include a recent find in India. Here, together with Late Acheulean tools, a skull with a volume of 1300 cm3 was found.

The reality of the existence of the Pithecanthropus stage in anthropogenesis is practically not disputed. True, the later representatives of the Pithecanthropes are considered the ancestors of subsequent, more progressive forms. The question of the time and place of the appearance of the first Pithecanthropus has been widely discussed in science. Previously, Asia was considered its homeland, and the time of appearance was estimated at about 2 million years. Now this issue is resolved differently. Africa is considered the birthplace of both Australopithecus and Pithecanthropus. In 1984, in Kenya (Nariokotome), a 1.6-million-year-old Pithecanthropus (complete skeleton of a teenager) was discovered. The main finds of the earliest pithecanthropes in Africa are: Koobi Fora (1.6 million years), South African Swartkrans (1.5 million years), Olduvai (1.2 million years). African pithecanthropus of the coast mediterranean sea(Ternifin) have an antiquity of 700 thousand years. The geological antiquity of the Asian variants can be estimated at 1.3–0.1 Ma. Archaeological evidence from sites in the Middle East, closer to Africa than to Asia, is known, suggesting that the antiquity of African pithecanthropes could reach 2 million years.

The synchronous forms of the fossil man from Europe are younger and rather peculiar. They are often referred to as "pre-Neanderthals" or referred to as Homo heidelbergensis, which in Africa, Europe and Asia was ancestral to modern humans and the Neanderthals of Europe and Asia. European forms have the following age: Mauer (500 thousand years), Arago (400 thousand years), Petralona (450 thousand years), Atapuerca (300 thousand years). Broken Hill (300 thousand years) and Bodo (600 thousand years) have a transitional evolutionary character in Africa.

In the Caucasus, the most ancient find in Georgia is the Dmanisi man, whose antiquity is estimated at 1.6-1.8 million years. Anatomical features make it possible to put it on a par with the most ancient hominids of Africa and Asia! Pithecanthropes were also found in other sites: in Uzbekistan (Sel-Ungur), in the North Caucasus (Kudaro), Ukraine. A form intermediate between Pithecanthropes and Neanderthals was found in Azerbaijan (Azykh). The Acheulean man apparently lived on the territory of Armenia (Yerevan).

Early pithecanthropes differ from later ones in greater massiveness of bones and a smaller brain size. A similar difference is observed in Asia and Europe.

In the Paleolithic, the Acheulean corresponds to the physical type of Pithecanthropus and early Neanderthals. The leading tool of the ashel is a hand ax (Fig. I. 9). It demonstrates a high level in the development of stone processing technology. Within the limits of the Acheulian era, one can observe an increase in the thoroughness of finishing axes: the number of chips from the surface of the tool increases. The surface finish becomes finer when stone chippers are replaced with softer ones made of bone, horn or wood. The size of a hand ax reached 35 cm. It was made from stone by chipping on both sides. The ax had a pointed end, two longitudinal blades and a raw opposite edge. It is believed that the ax had various functions: it served as a percussion instrument, was used for digging up roots, dismembering animal corpses, and processing wood. In the southern regions, an ax (jib) is found, which is distinguished by a transverse blade, not corrected by retouching, and symmetrically processed edges.

A typical Acheulean ax does not exhaust all the technological diversity characteristic of that period. There was a flake "klekton" culture, as well as a progressive flake culture "Levallois", which is distinguished by the manufacture of tools from flakes of disc-shaped blanks, the surface of the blanks was preliminarily processed with small chips. In addition to axes, small tools such as points, scrapers, and knives are found in the Acheulean sites. Some of them survive to the time of the Cro-Magnons. There are also Olduvai tools in the Acheulean. Rare wooden tools are known. It is believed that the Pithecanthropus of Asia could make do with bamboo tools.

Hunting was of great importance in the life of the Acheuleans. Pithecanthropes were not only collectors. The Acheulean monuments are interpreted as hunting camps, since bones of large animals are found in their cultural layer. The life of the Acheulean collectives was difficult, people were engaged in different types of labor. Different types of camps are open: hunting camps, flint quarry workshops, long-term camps. The Acheuleans built dwellings in open places and in caves. In the area of ​​Nice, a settlement of huts was opened.

The natural environment of the Acheulean man determined the features of material culture. The types of tools in different sites are found in different proportions. Hunting for large animals required the close rallying of a team of people. Parking lots of different types testify to the existence of a division of labor. The remains of hearths speak of the effectiveness of the use of fire by Pithecanthropes. In the Kenyan site of Chesovanja, traces of fire are 1.4 million years old. The Mousterian culture of Neanderthal man is the development of the technological achievements of the angelic culture of Pithecanthropes.

As a result of the Afro-Asiatic magrations of the first people, two main centers of human evolution arose - western and eastern. Pithecanthropus populations separated by vast distances could progress for a long time in isolation from each other. There is an opinion that Neanderthals were not a natural stage of evolution in all regions, in Africa and Europe Pithecanthropes (“preneanderthals”) were such.

Neanderthals (ancient people, paleoanthropes)

In the traditional stadial model of anthropogenesis, the intermediate evolutionary step between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens was represented by paleoanthropes (“ancient people”), who in absolute chronology lived from 300 thousand years to about 30 thousand years in Europe, Asia and Africa. In non-professional literature, they are often referred to as "Neanderthals", after the name of one of the first finds in 1848 in the Neandertal area (Germany).

In general, paleoanthropes continue the line of evolution of "Human erectus" (more precisely, Homo heidelbergensis), but in modern schemes they are often referred to as a side branch of hominids. In terms of the general level of evolutionary achievements, these hominids are closest to modern humans. Therefore, they have undergone changes in their status in the classifications of hominids: paleoanthropes are currently considered as a subspecies of Homo sapiens, i.e., as its fossil variant (Homo sapiens neanderthalensls). This view reflects new knowledge about the complexity of Neanderthal biology, intelligence, and social organization. Anthropologists who attach great importance to the biological differences between Neanderthals and modern humans still consider them a separate species.

The first finds of Neanderthals were made in the 19th century. in Western Europe and did not have an unambiguous interpretation.

Groups of paleoanthropes, located in a significant range of geological time, are very diverse in morphological appearance. Anthropologist V.P. Alekseev made an attempt to classify groups of Neanderthals, similar morphologically and chronologically, and singled out several groups: European, African, Skhul type and Western Asian. Most of the finds of paleoanthropes from Europe are known. Often Neanderthals inhabited the glacial zones.

On the same grounds (morphological and chronological), among the European forms of the indicated time, the following levels are distinguished: “the earliest Neanderthals” - “pre-Neanderthals”, “early Neanderthals” and “late Neanderthals”.

Anthropologists suggested that objectively there were multiple transitions between successive stadial groups, therefore, in different areas, an evolutionary transition to paleoanthropes could have taken place from several variants of Pithecanthropus. Representatives of the species Homo heidelbergensis could be predecessors (Petralona, ​​Swanscombe, Atapuerca, Arago, etc.).

The earliest European group includes the fossil skull from the Steinheim site (200 thousand years old), found in Germany in 1933, as well as the female skull of Swanscomb (200 thousand years old), discovered in England in 1935. These finds belong to the second interglacial according to the Alpine scheme. In similar conditions, a fossil lower jaw was found in France - the Montmorin monument. These forms are distinguished by a small size of the cerebral cavity (Steingheim - 1150 cm3, Swanscomb - 1250-1300 cm3). A set of features has been identified that bring the earliest forms closer to modern humans: a relatively narrow and high skull, a relatively convex forehead, a massive brow, like in Pithecanthropes, not divided into constituent elements, a rather rounded nape, a straightened facial region, and the presence of a rudimentary chin of the lower jaw. There is a clear archaism in the structure of the teeth: the third molar is larger than the second and first (in humans, the size of the molars decreases from the first to the third). The bones of this species of fossil man are accompanied by archaic Acheulean tools.

Many known Neanderthals belong to the last interglacial period. The earlier ones lived about 150 thousand years ago. You can imagine their appearance from the finds from the European monuments Eringsdorf and Saccopastore. They are distinguished by a vertical profile of the facial region, a rounded occipital region, a weakened superciliary relief, a rather convex forehead, a relatively small number of archaic features in the structure of the teeth (the third molar is not the largest among others). The brain volume of early Neanderthals is estimated at 1200-1400 cm3.

The time of existence of late European Neanderthals coincides with the last glaciation. The morphological type of these forms is clearly visible on the fossil bone remains of Chapelle (50 thousand years), Mousterian (50 thousand years), Ferrassi (50 thousand years), Neanderthal (50 thousand years), Engis (70 thousand years), Circeo (50 thousand years), San Sezer (36 thousand years) (Fig. I. 10).

This variant is characterized by a strong development of the eyebrow, the occipital region compressed from top to bottom (“chignon-shaped”), a wide nasal opening, and an enlarged cavity of molars. Morphologists note the presence of an occipital ridge, a chin protrusion (rarely and in its infancy), a large volume of the cerebral cavity: from 1350 to 1700 cm3. According to the bones of the skeleton of the body, it can be judged that the late Neanderthals were characterized by a strong, massive physique (body length - 155-165 cm). The lower limbs are shorter than in modern humans, the femurs are curved. The wide facial part of the skull in Neanderthals strongly protrudes forward and beveled on the sides, the zygomatic bones are streamlined. The joints of the arms and legs are large. In terms of body proportions, Neanderthals were similar to the modern Eskimo type, which helped them maintain body temperature in cold climates.

An interesting attempt is made to transfer ecological knowledge about modern man to paleoanthropological reconstructions. Thus, a number of structural features of the "classical" Neanderthals of Western Europe are explained by the consequence of adaptation to cold climate conditions.

It seems that the earliest and subsequent forms from Europe are linked by genetic links. European Neanderthals have been discovered in France, Italy, Yugoslavia, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Crimea and the North Caucasus.

To resolve the issue of the origin of modern man, the finds of paleoanthropes outside of Europe, mainly in Southwest Asia and Africa, are of exceptional interest. The absence of features of specialization in morphology in most cases distinguishes them from European forms. So, they are characterized by straighter and thinner limbs, not so powerful supraorbital ridges, shortened and less massive skulls.

According to one point of view, a typical Neanderthal man existed only within Europe and some regions of Asia, where he could move from Europe. Moreover, starting from the turn of 40 thousand years, Neanderthals coexisted with well-established people of the modern anatomical type; in the Middle East, such coexistence could be longer.

The finds of paleoanthropes from Mount Carmel (Israel) are exceptional in their significance. They attracted researchers with a mosaic of sapiens and Neanderthaloid features. These finds can be interpreted as actual evidence of the miscegenation of early Neanderthals and modern humans. True, it should be noted that some Skhul finds are currently considered as belonging to "archaic Homo sapiens". Let's name some of the most famous finds.

Tabun is a fossil skull discovered in Tabun Cave, Mount Carmel. Antiquity - 100 thousand years. The skull is low, the forehead is sloping, there are supraorbital ridges, but the front part and the occipital region have a modern character. The curved bones of the limbs are reminiscent of the type of European Neanderthals.

Skhul-V, antiquity - 90 thousand years (Fig. I. 11). The skull combines a large volume of the brain cavity and a fairly high forehead with a modern structure of the facial region and the back of the head.

Amud, antiquity - 50 thousand years. Found in Amud Cave near Lake Tiberias. (Israel). Has a large brain volume: 1740 cm3. The bones of the limbs are elongated.

Kafzeh, antiquity - about 100 years. years. Opened in Israel. Sapience is quite pronounced, therefore it is considered an accomplished sapiens.

In the north of Iraq, a Shanidar Neanderthal was discovered, classical in type, with a large brain region, the researchers drew attention to the absence of a continuous supraorbital ridge. Age - 70-80 thousand years.

A discovery of a Neanderthal man with traces of a funeral rite was made on the territory of Uzbekistan. The skull belonged to a boy with an unformed supraorbital ridge. The facial region and limbs of the skeleton, according to some anthropologists, are of a modern type. The place of the find is the Teshchik-Tash cave, antiquity is 70 thousand years.

In the Crimea, in the Kiik-Koba cave, bone remains of an adult paleoanthrope (the type is close to Western European Neanderthals) and a very young Neanderthal child were found. Bone remains of several Neanderthal children were discovered in the Crimea and near the city of Belogorsk. A fragment of the skull of a Neanderthal woman was also found here, with some modern features that make it look like the Skhul finds. Neanderthal bones and teeth have been discovered in Adygea and Georgia.

The skull of a paleoanthrope was discovered in Asia - in China, in the Mala grotto. It is believed that it cannot be attributed to any European variant of the Neanderthals. The importance of this find lies in the fact that it proves the replacement of one stage type by another in the Asian part of the world. Another point of view is that in finds like Mala, Chanyang, Ordos (Mongolia), we see transitional forms from Pithecanthropes to "early" sapiens. Moreover, this transition in some forms can be dated to at least 0.2 million years (uranium method).

On about. Java, near the village of Ngan-dong, found a kind of skull, bearing traces of cannibalism. The researchers drew attention to their very thick walls and powerful supraorbital ridge. Such features make the Ngandong skulls similar to the Pithecanthropus type. The time of existence of the discovered hominids is the Upper Pleistocene (about 0.1 million years), i.e. they are synchronous with the late Pithecanthropes. In science, there was an opinion that this is a local, peculiar type of Neanderthal, formed as a result of a slow evolutionary process. In other terms, the "Javanthropes" of Ngandong are defined as late Pithecanthropes genetically related to the Late Pleistocene sapiens of Australia.

Until recently, it was believed that Neanderthals existed not only in the north, but also in southern Africa. Broken Hill and Saldanha hominids were cited as examples of "South" Africans. In their morphological type, common signs of Neanderthals and Pithecanthropes were found. Their brain volume reached about 1300 cm3 (slightly less than the average value for Neanderthals). It has been suggested that Broken Hill Man is the successor of the East African Olduvai Pithecanthropus. Some anthropologists believed that there was a parallel line of evolution of paleoanthropes in Southeast Asia and southern Africa. At present, the Broken Hill variant is assigned the role of a fossil sapiens form.

A change in taxonomic views on late hominids has led to the fact that many forms preceding modern man are attributed to archaic Homo sapiens, often understanding this term as "pro-Neanderthals" (Swanscomb, Steinheim), further - peculiar African forms (Brocken Hill, Saldanya), Asian (Ngandong), as well as European variants of Pithecanthropus.

Paleontological evidence suggests a mestizo origin of classical European Neanderthals. Apparently, there were two waves of migrants from Africa and Asia about 300-250 thousand years ago, with subsequent mixing.

The evolutionary fate of the Neanderthals is not clear. The choice of hypotheses is quite wide: complete transformation of Neanderthals into sapiens; the complete extermination of Neanderthals by sapiens of non-European origin; mix of both options. The last point of view, according to which the emerging man of the modern type migrated from Africa to Europe through Asia, has the greatest support. In Asia, it was recorded about 100 thousand years ago, and it came to Europe at the turn of 40 thousand years. Further, the assimilation of the Neanderthal population took place. Evidence is provided by European finds of Neanderthal hominids, modern type and intermediate forms. Early Neanderthals, penetrating into Asia Minor, could crossbreed with ancient sapiens there as well.

An idea of ​​the scale of metizational processes is provided by fossil odontological materials. They recorded the contribution of European Neanderthals to the gene pool of modern man. The Neanderthal version of fossil hominids coexisted with the modern one for tens of thousands of years.

The essence of the evolutionary transition that took place at the boundary of the Upper Paleolithic is explained in the hypothesis of Professor Ya.Ya. Roginsky.

The author summarizes the data on the structure of the endocrane with clinical observations of modern man and, on this basis, suggests that the social behavior of paleoanthropes and modern man differs significantly (behavior control, manifestation of aggressiveness).

The Mousterian era, coinciding in time with the era of the existence of the Neanderthals, belongs to the Middle Paleolithic. In absolute terms, this time ranges from 40 to 200 thousand years. The Mousterian tool complexes are heterogeneous in terms of the ratio of tools of different types. Mousterian monuments are known in three parts of the world - Europe, Africa and Asia, and the bone remains of Neanderthals were also discovered there.

The technology of stone processing by Neanderthal man is distinguished by a relatively high level of splitting and secondary processing of flakes. The pinnacle of technology is the method of preparing the surface of the stone-blank and processing the plates separated from it.

Careful correction of the surface of the workpiece entailed the thinness of the plates and the perfection of the tools obtained from them (Fig. 1.12).

The Mousterian culture is characterized by disk-shaped blanks, from which the flakes were chipped off radially: from the edges to the center. Most of the Mousterian tools were made on flakes by secondary processing. Archaeologists count dozens of types of tools, but their diversity apparently comes down to three types: pointed, side-scraper, and knife. The point was a tool with a point at the end, used for cutting meat, leather, woodworking, and also as a dagger or spearhead. The scraper was a flake, retouched along the edge. This tool was used for scraping or cutting when processing carcasses, skins or wood. Wooden handles were added to the scrapers. Serrated tools were used for turning wooden objects, for cutting or sawing. There are piercers, incisors, scrapers in the Mousterian - tools of the Late Paleolithic. Means of labor are represented by special chippers (pieces of stone or pebbles of an elongated shape) and retouchers (pieces of stone or bone for processing the edge of the tool by pressing).

Modern ethnographic studies of the Australian Aborigines help to present the technological processes of the Stone Age. The experiments of archaeologists have shown that the technique of obtaining tool blanks in the form of flakes and plates was complex, requiring experience, technical knowledge, precise coordination of movements, and great attention.

Experience allowed the ancient man to reduce the amount of time needed to make tools. The bone processing technique in Mousterian is poorly developed. Wooden tools were widely used: clubs, spears, horns with ends hardened on fire. Vessels for water and elements of dwellings were made of wood.

Neanderthals were skilled hunters. At their sites, accumulations of bones of large animals were found: mammoths, cave bears, bison, wild horses, antelopes, mountain goats. Complex hunting activities were within the power of a coordinated team of Neanderthals. The Mousterians used methods of rounding up or rutting animals to breaks and swamps. Compound tools were found - spearheads with flint fragments. Bolas were used as throwing weapons. The Mousterians practiced cutting up the carcasses of slaughtered animals and roasting the meat over a fire. They made simple clothes for themselves. Gathering was of some importance. The discovered stone grain graters suggest that there was a primitive processing of grain. Cannibalism existed among Neanderthals, but was not widespread.

In the Mousterian time, the nature of the settlements changed. Sheds, grottoes and caves were more often inhabited. Types of Neanderthal settlements are distinguished: workshops, hunting and base camps. To protect the fires from the wind, wind barriers were arranged. In the grottoes, pavements were made from pebbles and pieces of limestone.

Bone remains of Neanderthals can be found together with Upper Paleolithic tools, as was the case, for example, with the discovery of a late Paleoanthrope in France (Saint-Cezaire site).

In the era of the early Würm, Mousterian burials appeared on the territory of Eurasia - the first reliable traces of the burial of the dead. Today, about 60 such monuments have been discovered. Interestingly, the "Neanderthaloid" and "sapient" groups more often buried adults, while the "Neanderthal" population buried both adults and children to the same extent. The facts of the burial of the dead give grounds to assume the existence of a dualistic worldview among the Mousterians.

Modern man, fossil and modern (neoanthropes)

Fossil representatives of Homo sapiens sapiens are widely represented in the known archaeological finds of hominid remains. The maximum geological age of neoanthropes fully formed in the evolution of fossils was previously estimated at about 40 thousand years (a find in Indonesia). It is now believed that the sapiens found in Africa and Asia were of much greater antiquity (although we are talking about skeletons that have archaic features expressed to varying degrees).

The bone remains of a fossil man of this subspecies are widely distributed: from Kalimantan to the extremities of Europe.

The name "Cro-Magnon" (as fossil neoanthropes are referred to in the literature) is due to the famous French monument of the Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnon. The structure of the skull and skeleton of the body of fossil neoanthropes does not differ in principle from that of modern humans, although its bones are more massive.

According to the analysis of bone material from Late Paleolithic burials, the average age of the Cro-Magnons was 30-50 years. The same life expectancy was preserved until the Middle Ages. Pathology of bones and teeth is less common than injuries (Cro-Magnon teeth were healthy).

Signs of difference between the skulls of Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals (Fig. 1.13): a less protruding facial region, a high convex crown, a high straight forehead, a rounded occiput, smaller quadrangular eye sockets, a smaller overall size of the skull, a chin protrusion of the skull is formed; the superciliary ridge is absent, the jaws are less developed, the teeth have a small cavity. The main difference between Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals is in the structure of the endocran. Paleoneurologists believe that in late anthropogenesis, the frontal regions of the brain, including centers for controlling behavior, developed. Were complicated internal communications brain, but the overall size of the brain decreased somewhat. Cro-Magnons were taller (169-177 cm) and less roughly built than Neanderthals.

Differences between the Cro-Magnon skulls and modern ones: the height of the vault is lower, the longitudinal dimensions are larger, the superciliary arches are pronounced, the eye sockets are wider, the facial section of the skull and lower jaw are wider, the skull walls are thicker. The Upper Paleolithic man retained for a long time the signs of the dental system characteristic of the Neanderthal. The features that distinguish the Cro-Magnon skull and endocrane from modern humans are often "Neanderthaloid" in character.

Attention is drawn to the fact that the distribution area of ​​the Cro-Magnon man is huge: the entire ecumene. With the advent of Cro-Magnon man, according to many experts, the species evolution of man is completed, and the evolution of biological qualities of man in the future seems impossible.

The most complete finds of Cro-Magnon skeletons in Europe have an antiquity not exceeding 40 thousand years. For example, the French neoanthrope Cro-Magnon lived 30 thousand years ago, the Cro-Magnon Sungir (a district of Vladimir) is 28 thousand years old. The archaic sapiens of Africa (with fairly pronounced Neanderthaloid features) looks much older: Omo in Ethiopia - 130 thousand years, River Mouse (South Africa) - 120 thousand years, Border (South Africa) - more than 70 thousand years, Kenyan finds of sapiens - 200-100 thousand years, Mumba (Tanzania) - 130 thousand years, etc. It is assumed that the antiquity of African sapiens may be even greater. Asian finds of sapiens have the following age: Dali (PRC) - 200 thousand years, Jinnbshan (PRC) - 200 thousand years, Qafzeh (Israel) - more than 90 thousand years, Skhul V (Israel) - 90 thousand years, Nia (Kalimantan) - 40 thousand years. The Australian finds are about 10 thousand years old.

Previously, it was assumed that modern humans arose in Europe about 40 thousand years ago. Today more anthropologists and archaeologists place the ancestral home of sapiens in Africa, and the antiquity of the latter is greatly increased, focusing on the above findings. In accordance with the hypothesis of the German anthropologist G. Breuer, Homo sapiens sapiens appeared south of the Sahara about 150 thousand years ago, then migrated to Asia Minor (at the level of 100 thousand years), and at the turn of 35-40 thousand years began to populate Europe and Asia, interbreeding with local Neanderthals. Modern biomolecular data also suggest that the ancestors of modern humanity came from Africa.

In accordance with modern evolutionary views, the most plausible model is the "net evolution" of hominids, in which an important place is given to the exchange of genes between different subspecies and species of ancient man. Therefore, very early finds of sapiens in Africa and Europe are interpreted as evidence of cross-breeding between sapiens species and Pithecanthropus. In the process of becoming a sapiens type between the primary centers of evolution of the genus Homo (western and eastern), there was a constant exchange of genes.

About 40 thousand years ago, the rapid settlement of the neoanthrope began. The reasons for this phenomenon lie in the genetics of man and the development of his culture.

Scientists studying Cro-Magnon man have to deal with a wide variety of types. There is no consensus on the time of the formation of modern races. According to one point of view, the features of modern races are in the Upper Paleolithic. This point of view is illustrated by examples of the geographical distribution of two features - protrusion of the nose and the degree of horizontal profiling of the facial region. According to another point of view, races take shape late, and the population of the Upper Paleolithic was distinguished by great polymorphism. So, for Europe, about 8 types of races of the Upper Paleolithic are sometimes distinguished. Two of them look like this: a) a dolichocranial, large-headed version of the Cro-Magnon with a moderate width of the face and a narrow nose; b) brachycranial (short-headed), with a smaller skull, a very wide face and a wide nose. It can be assumed that there were three stages in the formation of races: 1) the Middle and Lower Paleolithic - the formation of certain racial features; 2) Upper Paleolithic - the beginning of the formation of racial complexes; 3) post-Paleolithic time - the addition of races.

The cultures of the Upper (Late) Paleolithic are associated with the appearance of modern humans (neoanthropes). In Europe, the last period of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) is estimated to be 35-10 thousand years before our days and coincides with the time of the last Pleistocene glaciation (this fact is the subject of discussion in connection with the problem of the role of the environment in the development of mankind) (Fig. I. fourteen).

At first glance, in the Paleolithic era under discussion, there were no fundamental differences in material culture from previous eras: the same stone tools and hunting tools. In fact, the Cro-Magnons made a more complex set of tools: knives (sometimes daggers), spearheads, chisel cutters, bone tools such as awls, needles, harpoons, etc. Bone tools accounted for about half of the entire inventory, they were strong and more durable than stone ones. Stone tools were used to make tools from bone, wood, ivory - this is how the technological chains in the actions of ancient man were complicated.

Completely new types of implements arose, such as needles with eyes, fish hooks, harpoons, spear throwers. They significantly increased the power of man over nature.

The main difference of the Upper Paleolithic was the improvement of stone processing. In the Mousterian time, there were several ways of processing a blank stone (nucleus). The Lavallusian technique of careful initial surface treatment of the workpiece is the starting point for the technique of the Upper Paleolithic. Cro-Magnons used blanks suitable for chipping a series of plates (prismatic cores). Thus, in the Upper Paleolithic era, chipping techniques were improved, resulting in high quality microblades suitable for use in composite tools.

Archaeologists have experimented with reconstructing the way the plates are separated from the core, as the Cro-Magnons did. The selected and specially processed nucleus was clamped between the knees, which played the role of a shock absorber. The separation of the plates was carried out using a stone chipper and a bone intermediary. In addition, flint plates were separated by pressing on the edge of the core with a bone or stone wringer.

The knife blade method is much more economical than the flake method. From one workpiece, a skilled craftsman could separate more than 50 plates in a short time (length up to 25-30 cm, and thickness - several millimeters). The working edge of the knife-like blade is much larger than that of the flake. More than 100 types of tools are known for the Late Paleolithic. It is suggested that different Cro-Magnon workshops could differ in the originality of technical "fashion".

In the Upper Paleolithic, hunting was even more perfect than in the Mousterian time. This played a huge role in increasing food resources, and, in connection with this, the population.

A perfect innovation was spear throwers, which gave the Cro-Magnon hand a gain in strength, doubling the distance over which a spear could be thrown (up to 137 m, with an optimal distance for hitting up to 28 m). Harpoons made it possible to catch fish efficiently. Cro-Magnon invented snares for birds, traps for animals.

Perfect hunting was carried out on a large game: reindeer and ibex were pursued during their seasonal migrations to new pastures and back. Hunting techniques using knowledge of the area - driven hunting - made it possible to kill animals by the thousands. Thus, for the first time, an uninterrupted source of highly nutritious food was formed. A person got the opportunity to live in hard-to-reach areas.

In the construction of dwellings, the Cro-Magnons used the achievements of the Mousterians and improved them. This allowed them to survive in the conditions of the last cold millennium of the Pleistocene.

European Cro-Magnons used their good knowledge of the area to inhabit the caves. Many caves had access to the south, so they were well heated by the sun and were protected from cold northern winds. The caves were chosen not far from water sources, with a good view of pastures where herds of ungulates grazed. The caves could be used all year round or for seasonal stays.

The Cro-Magnons also built dwellings in the river valleys. They were made of stone or dug out of the ground, the walls and roof were made of skins, and the supports and bottom could be lined with heavy bones and tusks. The Upper Paleolithic structure in the Kostenki locality (Russian Plain), 27 m long, is marked by a number of foci in the center, which indicates that several families wintered here.

Nomadic hunters built light huts. Harsh climatic conditions helped Cro-Magnons to endure warm clothing. Depictions of humans on bone artifacts suggest that they wore tight-fitting trousers to keep them warm, parkas with hoods, boots, and mittens. The seams of the clothes were well stitched.

The high intellectual development and psychological complexity of the Cro-Magnons are proved by the existence of numerous monuments of primitive art, which is known for a period of 35-10 thousand years in Europe. This refers to small sculptures and wall paintings in caves. Engravings of animals and people were made on stones, bones and deer antlers. Sculptures and bas-reliefs were made of clay and stone, and drawings were obtained by Cro-Magnons using ocher, manganese and charcoal. The purpose of primitive art is not clear. It is believed that it was of a ritual nature.

Abundant information about the life of the Cro-Magnons is provided by studies of burials. It was found, for example, that the life expectancy of Cro-Magnon man increased in comparison with Neanderthals.

Some rituals of the Cro-Magnons have been reconstructed. So, the custom of sprinkling the skeleton of the deceased with red ocher, apparently, testifies to the belief in the afterlife. Burials with rich decorations suggest the emergence of wealthy people among hunter-gatherers.

An excellent example of a Cro-Magnon burial is provided by the Sungir monument near the city of Vladimir. The age of the burial is about 24-26 thousand years. Here rests an old man ("Leader") in fur clothes, richly decorated with beads. The second burial is interesting - a paired children's one. The children's skeletons were accompanied by mammoth tusk spears and were adorned with ivory rings and bracelets; clothes are also decorated with beads.

Modern man and evolution

Since the completion of the formation of the Homo sapiens species (from the middle of the Upper Paleolithic), it has retained stability in its biological status. The evolutionary completeness of a person is relative and does not mean a complete cessation of changes in his biological properties. A variety of changes in the anatomical type of a person of the modern type have been studied. Examples are a decrease in the massiveness of the skeleton, the size of the teeth, a change in the small toes, etc. It is assumed that these phenomena are due to random mutations. Some anthropologists, based on anatomical observations, predict the appearance of Homo futurus - "Man of the Future", with a large head, reduced face and teeth, with fewer fingers. But these anatomical "losses" do not characterize all human populations. An alternative view is that the biological organization of modern man allows unlimited social evolution, so it is unlikely that he will change as a species in the future.

Human evolution is a theory of the origin of humans created by the English naturalist and traveler Charles Darwin. He claimed that the ancient came from. To confirm his theory, Darwin traveled a lot and tried to collect different ones.

It is important to emphasize here that evolution (from Latin evolutio - “deployment”), as a natural process of the development of wildlife, accompanied by a change in the genetic composition of populations, really takes place.

But regarding the emergence of life in general and the emergence of man in particular, evolution is rather scarce in scientific evidence. It is no coincidence that it is still considered just a hypothetical theory.

Some tend to believe in evolution, considering it the only reasonable explanation for the origin of modern people. Others completely reject evolution as an anti-scientific thing, and prefer to believe that man was created by the Creator without any intermediate options.

So far, neither side has been able to scientifically convince opponents that they are right, so we can confidently assume that both positions are based purely on faith. What do you think? Write about it in the comments.

But let's deal with the most common terms associated with the Darwinian idea.

australopithecines

Who are Australopithecus? This word can often be heard in pseudo-scientific conversations about human evolution.

Australopithecus (southern monkeys) are upright descendants of driopithecus that lived in the steppes about 4 million years ago. These were quite highly developed primates.

skillful man

It was from them that the most ancient view people whom scientists call Homo habilis - "handy man."

The authors of the theory of evolution believe that in appearance and structure a skilled man did not differ from anthropoid apes, but at the same time he already knew how to make primitive cutting and chopping tools from roughly processed pebbles.

Homo erectus

The fossil species of people Homo erectus (“upright man”), according to the theory of evolution, appeared in the East and already 1.6 million years ago spread widely across Europe and Asia.

Homo erectus was of medium height (up to 180 cm) and was distinguished by a straight gait.

Representatives of this species learned to make stone tools for labor and hunting, used animal skins as clothing, lived in caves, used fire and cooked food on it.

Neanderthals

Once upon a time, the Neanderthal man (Homo neanderthalensis) was considered the ancestor of modern man. This species, according to the theory of evolution, appeared about 200 thousand years ago, and ceased to exist 30 thousand years ago.

Neanderthals were hunters and had a powerful physique. However, their height did not exceed 170 centimeters. Scientists now believe that Neanderthals were most likely just a side branch of the evolutionary tree from which man originated.

Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens (in Latin - Homo sapiens) appeared, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, 100-160 thousand years ago. Homo sapiens built huts and huts, sometimes even living pits, the walls of which were sheathed with wood.

They skillfully used bows and arrows, spears and bone hooks for catching fish, and also built boats.

Homo sapiens was very fond of painting the body, decorating clothes and objects with drawings. home life. It was Homo sapiens who created the human civilization that exists and develops to this day.

Stages of development of ancient man according to the theory of evolution

It should be said that this entire evolutionary chain of human origin is exclusively Darwin's theory, which still has no scientific evidence.

In the evolution of man (Homo) there are three stages:

1. The most ancient people, which include Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus and

Heidelberg man (Homo erectus species).

• 2. Ancient people - Neanderthals (the first representatives of the Homo sapiens species).
• 3. Modern (new) people, including fossil Cro-Magnons and modern people (the species of a reasonable person - Homo sapiens) Tikhomirov VN Biology: textbook. allowance for the 7th grade. general education institutions with Russian. lang. training / VN Tikhomirov // -- Minsk: Nar. asveta, 2010. -199 p. .

The line of man separated from the trunk common with monkeys not earlier than 10 and not later than 6 million years ago. The first representatives of the genus Homo appeared about 2 million years ago, and modern man - no later than 50 thousand years ago. ancient footprints labor activity date back to 2.5 - 2.8 million years (tools from Ethiopia). Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.

The oldest people lived 2 million - 500 thousand years ago. Pithecanthropus - "ape man". The remains were first discovered on about. Java in 1891 by E. Dubois, and then in a number of other places. Pithecanthropes walked on two legs, their brain volume increased, they used primitive tools in the form of clubs and lightly hewn stones. A low forehead, powerful brow ridges, a half-bent body with abundant hair - all this indicated their recent (monkey) past. Sinanthropus, whose remains were found in 1927 - 1937. in a cave near Beijing, in many respects similar to Pithecanthropus, this is a geographical version of Homo erectus. Sinanthropes already knew how to maintain fire. The main factor in the evolution of ancient people was natural selection.

Ancient people characterize the next stage of anthropogenesis, when social factors also begin to play a role in evolution: labor activity in the groups they lived in, a joint struggle for life and the development of intellect. These include Neanderthals, whose remains were found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They got their name from the place of the first discovery in the valley of the river. Neander (Germany). Neanderthals lived in the ice age 200 - 35 thousand years ago in caves, where they constantly kept fire, dressed in skins. Neanderthal labor tools are much more perfect and have some specialization: knives, scrapers, percussion tools. They are more elaborate and have some specialization: knives, side-scrapers, percussion instruments. They received their real name at the place of the first find in the valley of the river. Neander (Germany). Jaws testified to articulate speech. Neanderthals lived in groups of 50 to 100 people. Men collectively hunted, women and children gathered edible roots and fruits, old men made tools. The last Neanderthals lived among the first modern people, and then they were finally forced out by them. Some scientists consider Neanderthals a dead-end branch of hominin evolution that did not participate in the formation of modern man.

Modern people. The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently, about 50 thousand years ago. Their remains have been found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. In the grotto of Cro-Magnon (France), several skeletons of fossil people of the modern type were discovered at once, who were called Cro-Magnons. They possessed the whole complex of physical features that are characteristic. They possessed all the complex of physical features that is characteristic of articulate speech, as indicated by a developed chin protrusion; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock paintings), clothing, decorations, perfect bone and stone tools, the first tamed animals - all indicate that this is a real person, finally isolated from his animal-like ancestors. Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern people form one species - Homo sapiens - a reasonable person; this species was formed no later than 100 - 40 thousand years ago. In the evolution of the Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance, the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably. The driving forces of anthropogenesis. In human evolution - anthropogenesis - the most important role belongs not only to biological factors (variability, heredity, selection), but also to social factors (speech, accumulated work experience and social behavior). Human characteristics, due to social factors, are not fixed genetically and are not inherited, but in the process of education and training. In the first stages of evolution, selection for greater adaptability to rapidly changing circumstances was of decisive importance. Subsequently, however, the ability to pass on genetic acquisitions from generation to generation in the form of a variety of scientific, technical and cultural information began to play an increasingly important role, freeing man from the strict control of natural selection. Social patterns have become important in human evolution. The winners in the struggle for existence were not necessarily the strongest, but those who kept the weak: children - the future of the population, old people - the keepers of information about ways to survive (hunting techniques, making tools, etc.). The victory of populations in the struggle for existence was ensured not only by strength and intelligence, but also by the ability to sacrifice themselves in the name of the family, the tribe. Man is a social being, the distinguishing feature of which is consciousness, formed on the basis of collective labor.

Social relations play an ever-increasing role in the evolution of Homo sapiens. For modern people, social and labor relations have become leading and determining. This is the qualitative originality of human evolution.