home For kids New information about the war for the Polish inheritance. New page (1)

New information about the war for the Polish inheritance. New page (1)

Oh! Gdansk, ah! what are you up to?

You see that Alcides are ready;

Residents you see the troubles are severe;

Anger you hear Anna the most ...

Vasily Trediakovsky

The War of the Polish Succession is an insignificant episode, a fleeting operation, nevertheless, it was of great importance not so much for the history of Russia as for the history of Poland, being an important step towards the active interference of neighbors in its internal affairs, which ultimately led to the disappearance of Rech Commonwealth as a sovereign state.

N.I. Pavlenko

Serious political problems arose in the Kingdom of Poland from the beginning of 1733. King August I, who arrived in Warsaw to convene an emergency Sejm, died there on February. Fyodor Potocki, archbishop of Gniezno, primate of the Kingdom of Poland, accepted the regency and convened a diet, at which it was decided not to choose a foreign prince as king, but to choose a person from the Piast dynasty or a local nobleman. Petersburg and Vienna approved this decision of the Sejm, and the ambassadors of Russia and Austria expressed their support to the Poles (i.e., they sought to prevent the election of Stanislav as king). At that time, both courts (Petersburg and Vienna) were not in favor of Augustus III, Elector of Saxony. The elector settled the contradictions by signing a pragmatic sanction, and Russia promised to consult with the empress on Courland issues. Now Austria and Russia sided with Augustus.

The Russian ambassador was instructed to announce to Primate F. Pototsky that the Russian court would support the elector if Poland accepted him voluntarily.

The Russian government put forward 2 corps for conducting military operations: the 1st - in Ukraine, on the Lithuanian border, and the 2nd - in Livonia, on the Courland border. The French government also became more active, with the goal of electing Stanisław Leszczynski as the Polish king. The primate and most of the gentry, realizing that the Russians wanted to dominate Poland, united in favor of Stanislav. Stanislav was invited from France, the assembled Diet opened on August 25, 1733 and lasted until September 12, 1733 (until Stanislav Leshchinsky was elected king). Stanisław arrived in Warsaw on September 9, 1733 and lived incognito in the house of the French envoy.

Empress Anna Ioannovna wrote to the Lithuanians in order to persuade all the senators of the Grand Duchy to her side. Some of them separated from the Poles allies and crossed the Vistula (here were the bishops of Krakow and Poznan). Empress Anna Ioannovna ordered Count Lassi to enter Lithuania (with the forces of 20 thousand people). As some point out historical sources XVIII century, the Poles themselves constantly provoked the Russians to war. At the same time, many representatives of the Polish nobility supported the adventurer Stanislav Leshchinsky. P.P. Lassi commanded a group of about 12 thousand people and moved to Polish Prussia, and on January 16, 1734 he entered Thorn (the Polish city of Torun). On February 22, 1734, Russian troops approached Danzig (Gdansk), where Stanislav's supporters concentrated.

The presence of "King" Stanisław Leszczynski and promises of support from the French prompted the considerable Polish forces, concentrated in Danzig, to active defense. The armed forces of Stanislav Leshchinsky were about 50 thousand people. At that time, the Russian command clearly did not have enough funds for the siege of the city. At the same time, in those days, local battles took place on the territory of Poland.

Here is a description of one of the typical skirmishes in the winter of 1734 near the village of Korselets (spelling preserved): “Polish shooters were attacked by Russian Cossacks and dragoons and the detachment commander went ... to meet at a trot and, running up to them, lured the first fire from the shooters very early, so that for a long distance they did not damage a single person among the Cossacks. However, soon after this fire, they (the Cossacks) galloped straight into the city again. And so the shooters were encouraged to steal (i.e., to persecute). For this reason, the aforementioned shooters, hoping that they had won, were approaching the city directly, but they did not see that the Russian lieutenant colonel had broken the bridge at the mill and blocked their path to the forest from where they came out.

The Cossacks with their spears lined up against the shooters, and the lieutenant colonel expected secondary fire from them from their dragoons, after which they, dismounting from their horses, fired at them, that they were so sensitively committed that they thought to take flight, but these Cossacks told them that they made a strong obstacle, because they seized all the places where it was possible to escape, from which they were finally forced to leave for the granaries. From one granary, the arrows defended themselves after some time by shooting, but then, as dragoons and Cossacks suddenly surrounded the granary, they lit it in different corners of this granary, and those who did not want to burn out from the Cossacks were pierced with spears. It was also noted there that two shooters, seeing their comrades stabbed, crossed themselves, again ran into the fire and burned with their comrades in it ...

At the same time, while the granaries were still burning, it happened that one grenadier from the dragoons, an old gray-haired shooter who had come out of them, was picked up with an attached bayonet and he was repeatedly stabbed so cruelly that the whole bayonet bent, however, he could not hurt him in the least, what for he he called on his officer, who first chopped him on the head several times with a broadsword, and then stabbed him in the ribs, but even he could not kill him, until finally the Cossacks chopped his head with large clubs, that his brain came out of it, but he is still alive been for a long time."

In March 1734, Field Marshal Count Burchard Christopher Munnich arrived at Danzig. He was entrusted with the main command of all Russian troops in Poland. Minich immediately convened a council of war, where he announced the command of the empress, "without continuing the time, to act with the city as an enemy, without any regret, and imagined how he was thinking of taking possession of the mountains immediately lying in front of the city." Major General von Biron agreed with him, but the cautious generals Volynsky and Baryatinsky "remained of the opinion" that it was impossible to attack the mountains with such forces (without artillery, etc.).

On March 9, 1734, Minich reported to St. Petersburg that the rich, heavily fortified suburb of Danzig, the settlement of Scotland, had been taken by storm. “Minich wrote that it is impossible to describe and suffice to praise the courage of officers and soldiers, which they showed during the attack, marching all night in the rain and strong wind. The next day, the shelling of the city began ... ”The field marshal urgently called for reinforcements. A proclamation was sent to the city offering to hand over the keys within 24 hours. Seeing that there was no answer, Minich ordered to dig a trench and build a redoubt from the Zigankenberg area. On the night of March 19-20, the Russians attacked the Oru fortification (400 garrison men) and successfully took it after a two-hour battle. Russian gunners fired the first shots at the city (with eight-pound field guns).

On March 22, 1734, Minich reported to the Empress: “Every day, with adventage, I happily take one post after another from the enemy, by the way, one main post on the banks of the Vistula was taken on the night of the 21st to the 22nd, and a strong redoubt was made on the Russian side, which will stop enemy messages along the Vistula. Stanislav (his adherents of the third day were still in the city; I hope that they are still there now), perhaps one of them can leave the city in flooded places in a beggarly or priestly dress; the inhabitants of Danzig and their guests, like birds, have their heads covered with a net. At the present time of the year, and due to the decrease in people who are permanently in requests and at work, it is impossible to do more than what has been done, and only 77 people were lost and 202 people were wounded, the damage is very small, if we take into account that the enemy is constantly shooting in our requests and redoubts, and almost not a single day has passed without a sortie. I think that Your Majesty is aware of the departure of King Augustus to Saxony, which is unpleasant for all the nobility; I wrote to him and advised him to return to Poland.”

The fort "Head of Danzig" was captured. Elbing soon surrendered (where the Polish regiment had previously sworn allegiance to August), and the Russian garrison occupied the city. At that moment, it became known about the movement of the allied corps of Count Tarlo and Castellan Czersky to help Danzig. General Zagryazhsky and General Karl Biron (2000 dragoons and 1000 Cossacks) came forward. The enemy began to retreat in panic. The bridge over the Breda River was fixed, and the Russian troops, having crossed it, pursued the enemy. Soon Tarlo will once again try to lift the siege of Danzig with a counterattack. Commander Minich sends P.P. Lassi on April 17, 1734 to help Zagryazhsky's forces (total 1,500 dragoons). At the village of Wicesina, not far from the border of Pomerania, the enemy was attacked and dispersed. The gentry fled, and the Poles were about 10 thousand people, and the Russians - 3200 dragoons and 1000 Cossacks. So, the only "attempt to break through" was successfully eliminated by Russian troops.

Minich, punctually keeping records of every encounter with the enemy, reports his successes to Petersburg:

“Submitted on April 12, 1734, by the State Military Collegium.

Report of Field Marshal Cavalier Count von Munnich.

How ... the city of Danzig and others nearby this place god help and the high happiness of Her Imperial Majesty ... weapons against the enemy Minich on March 3,22 to 31, with considerable apanage, were described truly to the State Military Collegium, I report in a magazine!

On April 30, 1734, a powerful shelling of the city began, from May 6 to May 7, Minich ordered to storm Fort Zomerschanz (any connection with other settlements stopped). Major General Luberas did not come to the aid of Munnich's troops in time. However, Minich was forced to arrest Luberas for non-execution of the orders of the commander in chief, but Biron's close Levenvolde rescued this general. An order came from the capital to speed up the siege operations. On May 9, 1734, about 8,000 men were assigned to prepare an attack from Scheidlitz. At about 10 pm, the troops left in three columns: the 1st - on the other side of the Vistula, the 2nd - against Bischofeberg and the 3rd - against the right side of the Gagelsberg. The attack of well-organized troops began around midnight. An enemy battery was captured. The command suffered heavy losses. Minich gave the order to withdraw. However, the soldiers decided to fight to the end. In general, this sortie can be considered extremely risky.

Burchard Munnich reported on May 7: “So far, 1,500 bombs have already been thrown into the city, and despite this, the besieged do not show any inclination to surrender; I have ten more bombs for 10 days, but in the meantime, I hope that the Saxon or our siege artillery will not come.

At present crucial moment King Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia (who had promised assistance to Minich) declared neutrality and prevented the delivery of Russian artillery through his territories. Field Marshal Munnich, demonstrating the extraordinary abilities of a diplomat, answered Friedrich-Wilhelm: “Your Royal Majesty deigned to wait for a response from Petersburg to your proposal, but I reassure your Royal Majesty that my most merciful Empress will seek the free passage of her troops, even if Your Majesty allowed it the same to any of Stanislav's allies, and since I am in a position to enter into business with all the French, Swedes and Poles expected here, I can reassure your royal majesty that her imperial majesty will not leave me in this, and therefore I ask send me your Majesty's decree to the rulers of Prussia on the passage of our artillery. I take courage

also present to Your Majesty that France, during the course of the thirteen years' war, was completely ruined and fell into debt, and Russia, during the course of the 21 years of the war, did not make the slightest debt; so, may your royal majesty deign to show friendship to such a strong ally and not delay artillery.

On May 14, 1734, part of the Russian troops from Warsaw arrived at Danzig. On May 22, the Danzig magistrate proposed a two-day truce, but fierce fighting continued on both sides.

The French fleet arrived in the Danzig Bay to help the Poles, 16 ships landed 3 landing regiments - Blezois, Perigordsky, Lamarche - under the command of Brigadier La Mote de la Perouse, a total of 2400 people. Then it meant the direct intervention of France in the Russian-Polish armed conflict.

The French attacked Russian fortifications (retrashments), and the besieged inhabitants of the city, being in despair, consisting of 2 thousand infantry men, made a sortie. Thus supporting the French. Russian troops pushed the enemy back. Colonel of the Russian Olonets Dragoon Regiment Leslie distinguished himself in this battle.

So for the first time in history there was an armed clash between the Russian and French armies.

B.H. Munnich carried on a long and unpleasant correspondence with Friedrich Wilhelm and finally resorted to a trick: siege mortars were delivered to the Russian army from Saxony in closed carriages under the guise of crews of the Elector of Württemberg.

6 Arutyunov S. A.161

On May 25, 1734, Saxon troops under the command of the Duke of Weissenfel arrived at the camp near Danzig to help Minich. Under the drumbeat, with the banners unfolded, the French launched an offensive in three columns against the Russian retrashments. But soon they, having fallen under the fire of artillery, having suffered losses, retreated. The townspeople who tried to support the French infantry also returned to the city. On the night of May 29, the Saxons replaced the Russians in the trenches, and on June 12, 1734, the Russian fleet appeared near Danzig (consisting of 16 battleships, 6 frigates and 7 other ships).

“This morning at 9 o’clock the French attacked with great cruelty from the Weishelmind trenches our trenches, and, moreover, the Danzig inhabitants launched a sortie from the city with 2,000 people, who also had guns with them. I don’t know how many French there were, since they came out of the dense forest. As they approached close to our tranny, their commander was shot at the very beginning, whom they recognized by the cavalier order on it. From our side, during this action, very few were beaten, and none of the headquarters and chief officers. Many dead Frenchmen were found in the forest, and since our people chased them to the very Weishelmind trenches and spared no one, many of them were beaten in pursuit. Colonel Leslie, who was in command, was slightly wounded, and the horse below him was shot dead. As our cannons began to shoot at those who came out of the city to help the French, they, without doing anything, were forced to return to the city. These are the lines of the next report of the commander.

On June 14, Russian artillery resumed aimed fire on the city. Bombardier ships of the Russian fleet began to fire at the Weikselmund fort and the French camp, and already on June 19, 1734, Minich officially demanded capitulation from the Poles.

Negotiations began with the French. They demanded that their "corps" be sent to Copenhagen, but they were refused. The Russian command, showing humanism to the vanquished, offered the French to leave the camp with all military honors and, boarding Russian ships, go to one of the Baltic ports. On June 24, 1734, after minor formalities, they were sent to Kronstadt. A few months later they were returned to France. On June 24, the Weikselmund fort surrendered. A garrison of 468 people came out of it and swore allegiance to the new Polish king Augustus S.

On June 28, 1734, the Danzig magistrate sent parliamentarians to Munnich. Representatives of the magistrate informed Minich about the secret flight of Stanislav Leshchinsky from the city. Minich, enraged by such information, ordered the shelling to continue. On June 30, the city finally surrendered. The Polish lords (supporters of Stanisław) were "forgiven" and given freedom of choice. Primate, Count Poniatowski, Marquis de Monty were arrested and sent to Thorn.

The day before, on June 26, the Gdansk Treaty of 1734 was signed in 21 points between Field Marshal Minich, the Duke of Saxe-Weissenfel, the Saxon general and the deputies of the city of Gdansk, concluded on the recognition of the Elector of Saxony by the Polish King

August III and other things. The content of the "surrender" was as follows:

“... Danzig surrendered with an obligation to be loyal to King August III; Polish nobles who were in the city - Primate Potocki, Bishop Zaluski of Plotsk, Russian Voivode Czartoryski, Mazovian Governor Poniatowski and others - surrendered to the will and mercy of the Russian Empress. The city of Danzig must send to Petersburg a solemn deputation of the most distinguished citizens, at the choice of the empress, with a request for the most merciful forgiveness; the troops in the city surrendered as prisoners of war; the city undertook never to accept the enemies of the empress within its walls and to pay her a million beaten efimki for military expenses.

So, the siege of Danzig lasted 135 days. The losses of the Russian army amounted to: 8 thousand soldiers and about 200 officers. An indemnity of 2 million efimki was imposed on the city in favor of the Russian Empress. As eyewitnesses noted, “not once in this war did 300 Russians turn a single step off the road in order to avoid meeting with 3,000 Poles; they “beat” them every time.” Minich, whom they repeatedly tried to "denigrate" in the eyes of Empress Anna Ioannovna, fully restored his influence in the Russian capital. Later, court gossips will accuse him of "imprudent" storming of Gagelsberg...

In the summer of 1734 Field Marshal B.Kh. Minikh received an order from Empress Anna Ioannovna that “the local sejmiks should be properly covered and benevolent on them protected, moreover, all care and necessary alliances should be used in such force that these sejmiks through the intrigues and diligence of malicious people are not broken, but truly take place and on these, such deputies could be elected who were completely inclined towards the king and the true well-being of their fatherland, which would be the strongest confirmation to all generals and commanders.

A significant contribution to the description of the siege of Danzig was made by the son of Field Marshal Ernst Munnich. He fully considers the activity of B.Kh. Minich, as commander of the army, gives a detailed description of Danzig: “The city is regularly fortified, equipped with good external fortifications and many trenches lying around; on the one hand, it was impregnable because of the sunken earth; the garrison in the city, to which the Polish crown guard and the newly founded dragoon regiment belonged to the Marquis de Monti, consisted of at least 10,000 regular troops. All fortifications were covered by a sufficient number of serviceable guns. There was no shortage of military ammunition, and there was so much bread in the merchant barns that the inhabitants, together with the garrison, could have food for several years ... "

In addition to this, he quotes his father's statement about Leshchinsky's flight:

“If it turned out that the magistrate took part in this escape in the slightest, then the payment penalty money would have to be increased by one million rubles.”

In general, the details of the War of the Polish Succession are reflected too briefly in studies of military history. There are objective reasons for this. These events did not have a significant impact on the course of Russia's development, but from the point of view of military history, apparently, this material is not of interest.

The presence of a group of Russian troops in Poland did not cause any special problems among the Polish population. positive emotions. Thus, the statistics provide data on voting at one of the congresses (near Grokhov) on the eve of the offensive of the Russian army. For Stanislav, 60 thousand votes were cast, for Augustus III (protege of Russia) - only 4 thousand.

After the events described here, the French navy no longer appeared in the Baltic Sea. The Russian army successfully finished off groups of Stanislav's followers in Poland and Lithuania. However, Russian troops were hit back by the Poles. "Sometimes large masses of Poles" approached the Russian detachments and, provoking them, retreated. On the territory of Lithuania, the troops of General Izmailov successfully operated, in Volyn and Podolia - the forces of General Keith. Stanislav appeared in Koenigsberg (the Prussian king gave him his palace there). Again there was a danger of an alliance under the banner of Stanislav. In August 1734, he signed a manifesto calling for a general confederation (formed in Dzikovo under the command of Adam Tarlo). However, these forces again hoped for the support of France, the participation of Sweden and Turkey (in order to divert the Russian forces), etc. etc.

“To calm Poland, Minich was sent, who, before leaving for the army on February 11, 1735, submitted the following report to the Empress:

Since the camping commissariat commission of the local corps is dissatisfied with members, besides, having no authority, in many cases it demands a resolution in advance from the main krieg commissariat, which is why there is a big stop in business, as it really turned out when I was near Danzig, so that this supply the commission with members and determine that it, without writing off to the main krieg commissariat, fulfills everything according to my proposals, and if there are people worthy of being in it with the local corps, then it would be instructive to appoint them at my discretion. Resolution: to inflict on this point, and to appoint good and worthy people to the local commissariat with the consent of the local generals.

So that for couriers, spies and other extraordinary expenses, according to my proposals, money from the same commission is issued without any stop; I will file detailed reports on them. Resolution: to release money without stopping at the written request of the Field Marshal.

If some foreign officers ask to be accepted into the Russian service, then will they accept worthy ones with the same ranks? Resolution: take it to the captain, and report in detail about the staff officers, what their former services and merits are.

So that I should be allowed to promote worthy officers not by seniority and not by balloting, but by merit. Resolution: to promote to the captain, and to inform about the highest ranks with the image of their service.

Thus, Minich streamlined the production of foreign officers in the Russian service.

In April 1735 Minich arrived in Warsaw. The troops of the governor of Lublin, Jan Tarlo (10 thousand people), who entered Poland and did not receive support from abroad, were completely demoralized. Stanislav Leshchinsky himself wrote to Tarlo about the futility of continuing the war with Russia. Discipline in the troops of the Confederates fell, individual "warriors" began to scatter and surrender to the Russians.

The "Leshchinsky case" failed, and its supporters lost heart. Numerous Polish militias no longer represented any serious enemy. The Polish army was engaged in strife and brought the Russians only fatigue with transitions.

“Sometimes,” writes Adjutant Minich H.-G. Manstein, - large masses of Poles were approaching the Russian detachment, spreading rumors that they wanted to give battle, but before the Russians had time to fire two cannon shots, the Poles were already fleeing. Never did a Russian detachment of 300 people turn off the road to avoid 3,000 Poles, because the Russians are used to beating them at all meetings ... "

Little by little, the Polish troops dispersed to their homes, and the Russian troops could easily take up winter quarters in the country of Augustus III. In the campaign of 1735, the Petersburg Cabinet decided to move Russian troops to Germany to support the Caesar, whose army fought on the Rhine with the French.

June 8, 1735 P.P. Lassi with a 20,000th corps moved from Poland through Silesia and Bohemia to Bavaria and arrived in Nuremberg on July 30 (the Austrians took over the provision of the Russians). “Until now, the campaign was carried out safely,” Lassi from Nuremberg reported with irony, “the soldiers had no need for food, and no complaints came from anyone against the army. It is very surprising in these parts that a large army is kept in such good order; from distant places, many inhabitants come to watch our army ... "

In September the army arrived on the Rhine. Never before have Russian eagles flown so far to the west, but they never had to measure their strength with an equivalent enemy in this war. The French had already concluded a truce, and soon signed a peace.

In November, the Lassi corps moved back to Russia - a new big war began in the steppes of Ukraine ...

Reasons for the war.

Rivalry for influence in Poland between France on one side and Austria, Saxony and Russia on the other.

Reason for war.

February 1, 1733 died the king of Saxony and Poland, August II the Strong (August II. der Starke). The political struggle for the Polish throne began between the candidate of France former king Poland (1704 - 1709) Stanisław I Leszczynski (Stanisław I Leszczyński) and the Russian-Saxon candidate, son of King Augustus II the Strong, Saxon Elector Augustus Saxon (August der Sachse). August 25 - September 12 at the electoral Sejm in Warsaw, there was a split between the various parties of the magnates. As a result, Stanislav I Leshchinsky was elected king of Poland, and his opponents began to gather detachments of armed gentry, turned to Russia for help, and on September 24 elected Augustus II of Saxony as king of Poland. In Europe, 2 opposing coalitions have formed: Austria, Saxony, Russia and their Polish allies against France, Spain, Sardinia, Bavaria and their Polish allies.

Command of the Russian army:

General-in-Chief, Count Pyotr Petrovich Lassi, Field Marshal Khristofor Antonovich Minich.

Command of the Saxon army: Saxon elector August Saxon (August der Sachse).

Austrian Army Command: Generalissimo Eugene of Savoy (Eugen Franz Prinz von Savoyen-Carignan), Field Marshal Claude de Mercy (Claudius Florimund de Mercy), Count Joseph Dominik Koenigsegg (Lothar Joseph Dominik Graf von Königsegg-Rothenfels).

Command of the Polish troops: King Stanisław I Leszczyński, crown hetman Joseph Potocki (Józef Potocki).

Command of the French Army: Marshal, Duke Claude de Villars (Claude Louis Hector de Villars), Marshal, Duke Francois Coigny (François de Franquetot de Coigny), Marshal, Duke James of Berwick (James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick).

Command of the Spanish Army: Duke of Parma and Tuscany Carlos (Carlo Sebastiano di Borbone).

Command of the Sardinian Aria: King of Sardinia Charles Emmanuel III (Carlo Emanuele III di Savoia).

TVD: Poland, Apennine Peninsula, Sicily, Rhineland.

Periodization of the War of the Polish Succession 1733 - 1735:

Campaign of 1733

In July, Russian troops entered Poland, attacked Warsaw, occupied it, and then moved on to Danzig.

In October, Sardinian troops besieged and took Milan. French troops entered Northern Italy.

Campaign of 1734

In March, Russian troops besieged Danzig, in May they defeated the French landing force and captured the city at the end of June.

The fighting between the Austrian and the Franco-Sardinian army unfolded with varying degrees of success.

Spanish troops defeated the Austrian army in southern Italy.

French troops defeated the Austrian army in the Rhineland.

Campaign of 1735

Franco-Sardinian troops ousted the Austrian troops from northern Italy and captured the island of Sicily.

In June, Russian troops from Poland through Silesia reached the upper Rhine and took up positions near Heidelberg.

End of the War of the Polish Succession 1733 - 1735

In Vienna, on November 8, 1738, a peace treaty was signed between Austria and France. According to him, Stanislav I Leshchinsky renounced the Polish throne in favor of August Saxon. Spain received Naples and Sicily from Austria. Sardinia annexed western part Lombardy. Russia strengthened its positions in Poland, ousting France from it and ousting Austria.

Losses

50.4 thousand French,
3 thousand Spaniards,
7.2 thousand Sardinians

3 thousand Russians,
32 thousand Austrians,
1.8 thousand Prussians

Audio, photo, video at Wikimedia Commons

War of the Polish Succession- a war that took place in 1733-1735 by coalitions of Russia, Austria and Saxony on the one hand and France, Spain and the Kingdom of Sardinia on the other.

The reason was the election of the king to the Polish throne after the death of August II (). France supported the candidacy of Stanislav Leshchinsky, father-in-law of Louis XV, who had already occupied the Polish throne during the Northern War, Russia and Austria - the Saxon elector Frederick August II, the son of the late king. The victory was won by the anti-French coalition.

The weakness of the central government of the Commonwealth, the omnipotence of the aristocracy and the arbitrariness of the petty gentry made this state a restless neighbor. First of all, this affected Russian-Polish relations. Robber detachments of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry attacked border villages, drove away peasants and cattle, burned fields and houses. The Polish magnates, in violation of the Eternal Peace of 1686, pursued a policy of settling lands recognized by the treaty as a neutral barrier. So, the headman Yablonovsky restored Chigirin, ruined by the Bakhchisaray Treaty of 1681, seized several farms in the lands of the Mirgorod and Pereyaslav regiments, built 14,203 yards on neutral lands, set up roadblocks and collected duties from Russian subjects. The government of the Commonwealth laid claim to Livonia and tried to limit the autonomy of the Duchy of Courland. The Polish Catholic majority persecuted the Orthodox in Grodno and Minsk.

For the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish question was primarily connected with the problem of the unity of the Empire. In 1697, the Elector of Saxony Friedrich-August I was elected to the Polish throne. The Elector's heirs from his son's marriage to the Archduchess Marie-Joseph could claim part of the heritage of the House of Austria. In Silesia, the Polish gentry, just as in Russia, raided border settlements. The Polish-Austrian relations were also complicated by the persecution of "dissidents", especially Lutherans. The emperor was the guarantor of the rights of religious minorities in the empire, and outbursts of Catholic fanaticism in the Commonwealth caused the activity of the Jesuits in Silesia and Hungary, where there were also many Lutherans. In addition, it caused demarches from the Protestant princes of the Empire, who were supported by England and Sweden.

The second half of the 1920s in Europe was marked by a sharp confrontation between two blocs of powers - the Hanover and Vienna unions. In 1726, Austria and Russia entered into a defensive alliance, and the question of the policy of the Commonwealth was supplemented by new circumstances. Now the Commonwealth divided the lands of the two allied powers and, in case of war, had to let the troops of the allies through. The presence in the Commonwealth of a government friendly to Austria and Russia became even more necessary.

The position of the allies was twofold. For Russia, the issue was to resolve border disputes, guarantee freedom of religion for the Orthodox population of the Commonwealth, suppress robbery raids and preserve the autonomy and territorial integrity of Courland. On the one hand, the solution of these issues required the creation of a strong royal power in the Commonwealth, which could curb the willfulness of the gentry and magnates. On the other hand, Russia was not interested in strengthening the Commonwealth. Preservation "liberties and the constitution of the Republic", creating noble anarchy in the country, was a reliable guarantor from the war with the Commonwealth. Both Russia and Austria were opposed to the idea of forming a Polish-Saxon kingdom, which August II aspired to. The Allies also opposed the creation of a Commonwealth union with Turkey, France and Sweden. Russia sought from the Polish government the observance of the obligations on freedom of religion for the Orthodox, taken by the Commonwealth under the treaty of 1689, and the recognition of Russia's right to represent the interests of the Orthodox before the Polish government. On the issue of freedom of religion, Russia acted together with England, Sweden and Holland, who supported their Protestant co-religionists.

The solution of these problems required the development of a common position. In 1727, Austria became the initiator of discussions on the succession to the Polish throne after the death of King Augustus II. According to the rescript of Emperor Charles VI, such an initiative was caused by the need to ensure the passage of the Allied auxiliary corps through the Commonwealth in the event of a war with the Hanoverian bloc. On February 1 (12), 1727, at a conference of the Supreme Privy Council, the Imperial Minister in Russia, Count Ignaz Amadeus Bussy-Rabutin, announced the opinion of Emperor Charles: the Emperor is against the nomination of the Saxon Crown Prince Friedrich-August or Stanislav Leshchinsky as candidates for the Polish throne and supports the nomination of a candidate from the Polish nobility , "natural Piasts", who are not influenced by other powers, especially France; the emperor supports the fight against Moritz of Saxony in Courland (Count Moritz tried to become a duke). On February 9 (20), Empress Catherine I gave an answer - in choosing a candidate, she relies on the emperor.

In 1728, Augustus II tried to move closer to Vienna, where Field Marshal Fleming was sent, but the field marshal died before negotiations began. On October 2 (13), August II concluded the Versailles Pact: in the event of a war between Louis XV and Emperor Charles, King August promised to remain neutral and not let Russian troops through, in response, France provided the king with subsidies. On 15 (26) November, the Russian Minister in Vienna, Ludovik Lanchinsky, met with the President of Hofkriegsrat, Prince Eugene of Savoy. The prince confirmed that the court of Vienna wanted a free election of the king, would support a Piast candidate friendly to Russia and Austria, and would not allow the election of Leszczynski. The next intensification of negotiations took place in 1730, which was associated with the aggravation of the confrontation between the European blocs. In July-August 1730, the Russian court informed Vienna that negotiations were underway with the French in Warsaw and Dresden. On July 11 (22), Lanchinsky reported to St. Petersburg about his meeting with Prince Eugene: “When I announced to him that the news about the secret Saxon negotiation with France was continuing, I skillfully took out a handkerchief from my pocket, tied a knot and said briefly:“ I remember de “” .

On November 7 (18), 1730, the imperial ambassador, Count Franz-Karl von Vratislav, informed Vice-Chancellor Andrei Osterman of the decree of Emperor Charles on the Polish issue. The emperor proposed to conclude an agreement between Prussia, Russia and Austria on following conditions :

Ensuring the freedom to elect the king and the exclusion of Leshchinsky;
Registration of a special agreement on the candidacy of the applicant from Saxony;
Nominate a common candidate from the Piasts;
Foreign princes should be invited only if this does not contribute to the election of Leshchinsky.

On December 14 (25), Vratislav presented a draft treaty that provided for the guarantee of the Polish "republic", the formation of a Prussian-Russian-Austrian council for Polish affairs and the nomination of a candidate who "contained all Polish freedoms and would live in peace with all border countries". On January 2 (13), 1731, Empress Anna Ioannovna approved this project.

In 1730-1731, in the Commonwealth, at the Sejm in Grodno, the issue of liquidating the autonomy of Courland and dividing the duchy into voivodships and districts was considered, which was contrary to international agreements, since many European powers acted as guarantors of the autonomy of the duchy. In 1731, the Polish-Lithuanian raids on the borders and the persecution of the Orthodox intensified. These events prompted Russia to action. Lieutenant General Count Karl Löwenwolde and Adjutant General of the Empress Count Ernst Biron left for Berlin, who were supposed to coordinate actions on the Polish issue with King Friedrich Wilhelm I. In August 1731 Levenwolde left for Vienna as an envoy extraordinary.

For Emperor Charles VI, 1731 also became a turbulent year. On December 7 (18), 1731, the Reichstag in Regensburg guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, but the electors of Bavaria, the Palatinate and Saxony, who could claim part of the "Austrian inheritance", abstained. The next demarche of August II forced the Vienna court to act decisively. On February 6 (17), 1732, Count Vratislav presented to Empress Anna Ioannovna the emperor's response to the promemoria of Count Levenvolde, the envoy extraordinary in Vienna. The emperor ordered the imperial ambassador in Warsaw, Count Wilczek, together with the Russian envoy, Count Friedrich Levenwolde "all sorts of convenient and strong harassment, where appropriate, to use" to protect Orthodox "dissidents" and the Russian population on the Polish border. In case this is not enough, the emperor is ready to support Russia by force of arms, considering the situation as a case of aggression, "when one or the other side in the late possession of their lands under the said allied treaty is disturbed". On July 13 (24), Emperor Charles arrived incognito in Prague, where he secretly met with King Friedrich Wilhelm in the house of Count Nostitz. The monarchs agreed on joint actions in the election of a new Polish king.

The Polish question could not leave France aside. Since the conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna in 1726, France has pursued a policy of "eastern barrier" towards Russia. The purpose of this policy was to create a hostile environment around Russia from Sweden, Turkey and the Commonwealth. France helped Sweden to restore the army and tried to establish allied relations between Turkey, Poland and Sweden, directed against Russia. The objective of the "eastern barrier" policy was to weaken Russia and divert its attention from the problems of Central and Central Europe, which was to ensure Russia's non-interference in Austro-French relations.

In 1728, at the Congress of Soissons, Cardinal de Fleury, in view of the illness of King August II, proposed that the Swedes come to an agreement with England and Holland to support the candidacy of Stanislav Leshchinsky as the new king. Sweden supported the French proposal and agreed to provide financial support. In addition, Sweden declared its readiness to provide Leshchinsky and armed support. On July 25, 1729, Sweden made peace with Saxony, and on October 7, 1732, peace with the Commonwealth. These treaties legally ended the Northern War. Both agreements were concluded without the participation of Russian intermediaries, as insisted on by Russia, and gave French and Swedish diplomacy the opportunity to strengthen Leshchinsky's position in Poland.

On December 2 (13), 1732, in Berlin, the Russian ambassador Count Levenwolde and the imperial ambassador Count Seckendorf concluded an agreement with King Friedrich Wilhelm on joint actions in the Commonwealth, which became known as the "Union of Three Black Eagles". Under the agreement, to counter Leshchinsky, it was decided to deploy troops on the borders: 4,000 cavalry from Austria, 6,000 dragoons and 14,000 infantry from Russia, and 12 battalions and 20 squadrons from Prussia. To bribe the magnates, the parties allocated 36,000 chervonny (about 90,000 rubles) each. The general candidate for the election of the king was the Portuguese Infante Manuel, the candidate in Courland was Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia. The Duke of Courland was not to have possessions outside of Courland and remained a vassal of the Commonwealth. The Lowenwolde mission stalled when the emperor refused to put the agreements on paper.

Death of King Augustus II

The balance of power in Europe was not in favor of King August II, and most of the Polish magnates were opposed to him. The last step of August the Strong was the proposal to divide the Commonwealth between him and Prussia. August offered Friedrich Wilhelm Polish Prussia, Courland and part of Greater Poland, the rest of the lands became a hereditary kingdom. On December 31, 1732 (January 11, 1733) in Krosno, the king met with the Prussian minister von Grumbkow, but the negotiations were interrupted due to the king's aggravated illness. After 4 days in Warsaw, the king fell ill, on January 18 (29) he developed a fever, and on the morning of January 21 (February 1), 1733, the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland August the Strong died.

The death of the king was a signal to action for the European powers. As the Russian envoy in Vienna, Louis Lanchinsky, reported to the Empress Anna: “After the release of my last report under No. 6, a courier arrived here from the Caesar's ambassador Count Wilczek from Warsaw, and on the third day at the end of the 9th hour in the morning, with a statement about the death of the King of Poland, and that hour His Caesar's Majesty called to him chief ministers, with whom he deigned to speak about that occasion. And yesterday, Prince Eugene had a conference, in which, as I was informed from here, they put on a measure to your court Imperial Majesty and send a courier to Berlin with a dispatch in such a force that all three courts try to excommunicate Stanislav Leshchinsky from the Polish throne, and to make kings for all three powers, for which a certain amount of money is determined here to incline the Polish nobles " .

In the Commonwealth, executive power passed into the hands of the primate, Archbishop Gniezno Count Fyodor Pototsky. With his first decrees, the primate expelled 1,200 Saxons from the country, disbanded two regiments of the Horse Guards, and accepted August II's favorite regiment, the Grand Musketeer, into Polish service. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw, Count Friedrich Levenwolde, found out in conversations with the primate that he was a firm supporter of Leshchinsky. For Russia, the support of Leshchinsky by the Potocki family did not bode well, since the Potocki controlled the voivodeships bordering Russia. Warden Count Jozef Pototsky was the voivode of Kiev, Anthony Pototsky was the voivode of Belsky. The relatives of the Pototskys were the voivode, the Russian August, Czartorysky, the headman of Chigirinsky Yablonovsky, the treasured grand crown count Frantishek Ossolinsky, the crown regimentar Count Stanislav Poniatowski.

The support for Russia and Austria was the Lithuanian nobility, opposed to Leshchinsky - the Lithuanian regimentary Prince Mikhail Vishnevetsky, Prince Mikhail-Kazimir Radziwill. The pro-Austrian voivode Krakow prince Fyodor Lyubomirsky and kashtelyan prince Jan Vishnevetsky were set up. By February 12 (23), 1733, they organized a confederation in Krakow and captured the salt mines, but without receiving military assistance from Austria, the confederates soon submitted to the primate.

The Austrian forces scattered throughout the fortresses of the Kingdom of Naples could not resist the enemy, so the Austrians concentrated 6 thousand people on a fortified position at San Angelo de la Canina. The Spaniards took possession of the Sant'Angel position, surrounded Gaeta and Capua and approached Naples, which on April 10, 1734 opened the gates in front of them.

On May 10, 1734, Don Carlos was proclaimed King of Naples under the name of Charles III. The remnants of the Austrian troops (9 thousand people) concentrated near Bitonto, but on May 25 they were defeated by the Duke of Montemar: more than half fell in battle, and the rest, having not held out for long in Bitonto and Bari, were forced to lay down their arms. Gaeta soon fell and only Count Thrawn was held in Capua until the end of November.

By December 1734, the Kingdom of Naples was cleared of Austrian troops. Following this, Montemar, who received the title of Duke of Bitont for his victories, crossed to Sicily and occupied Palermo, and on June 3, 1735, Charles III was crowned king of both Sicilies.

German theater of operations

By definition of the Imperial Reichstag, the principalities allied with Austria had to put up a hundred and twenty thousandth army, but due to lack of money, the commander-in-chief, the Duke of Bevernsky, took only 12 thousand people under his command. Of course, with such an army, he could not even think about offensive actions.

On April 9, 1734, the French army of Marshal Berwick began the campaign by taking Trarbach, then crossed the Rhine and, bypassing the Ettlingen lines, forced the Austrian army to withdraw to Heilbron, where the Duke of Bevernsky was replaced by Eugene of Savoy, who arrived from Vienna. The army had already grown to 26 thousand people, but consisted of different nationalities, largely disagreeing with each other. The aged Prince Eugene, embarrassed by the distrust of the Viennese court, considered it best to confine himself to passive defense. He continued to follow this course of action even further, despite the fact that the army gradually reached 60 thousand people.

The French laid siege to Philippsburg, which was stubbornly defended, led by a brave commandant, Baron Wutgenau. During this siege, Berwick was killed, but his successor, the Marquis d'Asfeld, ended the siege.

Prince Eugene strongly hoped for an alliance with the maritime powers and, using his former connections with the English court, tried to involve England in the fight against France. Despite the willingness and threats expressed by King George II of Austria, in case of disagreement, to extradite Crown Princess Maria Theresa to the heir to the Spanish throne, the British government, led by Walpole, refused an alliance.

truce

After Austria had lost hope of attracting England to its side, the emperor on November 3, 1734 concluded a truce with France, and on May 7, 1735 he signed the preliminary conditions: Leshchinsky was granted the title of Polish king and the possession of all the estates that belonged to him in Poland, Charles III was recognized the king of both Sicilies, Sardinia received Tortona, Novara and Vigevano, yet other Austrian possessions were returned to Austria; The pragmatic sanction was recognized by all Bourbon courts, the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were given to the emperor, who claimed the future possession of Tuscany.

However, the agreement between the powers that made peace did not last long. France was unhappy that she received nothing for all her donations; Spain did not concede Parma and Piacenza and, on the occasion of insulting its envoy in Lisbon, declared war on Portugal, asking for help from England and Austria. England began to arm. Sardinia entered into negotiations with Austria.

Under these conditions, Austria demanded auxiliary troops from Russia, and the Russian government decided to send the 13,000th Lassi corps to help her. On June 8, 1735, Lassi marched from Poland to Silesia; on August 15, the Russian army joined the imperial one and settled down between

; in exchange, France recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, according to which his daughter Maria Theresa was recognized as the successor of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in hereditary possessions, and her husband Franz I Stephen, who renounced his native Lorraine in favor of Stanislav, was to become emperor.

The Polish question in international politics in the late 20s - early 30s of the 18th century

By the 20s of the 18th century, the Commonwealth was excluded from big European politics, but remained an important factor in the politics of Eastern Europe. Geographical position country, bordering on the possessions of Turkey, Russia, Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire, gave weight to the position taken by the rulers of the state in international matters.

The weakness of the central government of the Commonwealth, the omnipotence of the aristocracy and the arbitrariness of the petty gentry made this state a restless neighbor. First of all, this affected Russian-Polish relations. Robber detachments of the Polish-Lithuanian gentry attacked border villages, drove away peasants and cattle, burned fields and houses. The Polish magnates, in violation of the 1686 Perpetual Peace, pursued a policy of settling lands recognized by treaty as a neutral barrier. So, the headman Yablonovsky restored Chigirin, devastated by the Bakhchisaray Treaty of 1681, captured several farms in the lands of the Mirgorod and Pereyaslav regiments, built 14,203 yards on neutral lands, set up roadblocks and collected duties from Russian subjects. The government of the Commonwealth laid claim to Livonia and tried to limit the autonomy of the Duchy of Courland. The Polish Catholic majority persecuted the Orthodox in Grodno and Minsk.

For the Holy Roman Empire, the Polish question was primarily connected with the problem of the unity of the Empire. In 1697, the Saxon Elector Frederick-August I was elected to the Polish throne. The Elector's heirs from his son's marriage to the Archduchess Marie-Joseph could claim part of the heritage of the House of Austria. In Silesia, the Polish gentry, just as in Russia, raided border settlements. Complicated the Polish-Austrian relations and the persecution of "dissidents", especially Lutherans. The emperor was the guarantor of the rights of religious minorities in the empire, and outbursts of Catholic fanaticism in the Commonwealth caused the activity of the Jesuits in Silesia and Hungary, where there were also many Lutherans. In addition, it caused demarches from the Protestant princes of the Empire, who were supported by England and Sweden.

The second half of the 1920s in Europe was marked by a sharp confrontation between two blocs of powers - the Hanoverian and Vienna alliances. In 1726, Austria and Russia entered into a defensive alliance, and the question of the policy of the Commonwealth was supplemented by new circumstances. Now the Commonwealth divided the lands of the two allied powers and, in case of war, had to let the troops of the allies through. The presence in the Commonwealth of a government friendly to Austria and Russia became even more necessary.

The solution of these problems required the development of a common position. In 1727, Austria initiated discussions about the succession to the Polish throne after the death of King Augustus II. According to the rescript of Emperor Charles VI, such an initiative was caused by the need to ensure the passage of the Allied auxiliary corps through the Commonwealth in the event of a war with the Hanoverian block. On February 1 (12), 1727, at a conference of the Supreme Privy Council, the imperial minister in Russia, Count Ignaz Amadeus Bussy-Rabutin, reported the opinion of Emperor Charles: the emperor is against the nomination of the Saxon crown prince Friedrich-August or Stanislav Leshchinsky as candidates for the Polish throne and supports the nomination of a candidate from the Polish nobility , "natural Piasts", who are not influenced by other powers, especially France; the emperor supports the fight against Moritz of Saxony in Courland (Count Moritz tried to become a duke). On February 9 (20), Empress Catherine I gave an answer - in choosing a candidate, she relies on the emperor.

In 1728, Augustus II tried to move closer to Vienna, where Field Marshal Fleming was sent, but the field marshal died before negotiations began. On October 2 (13), August II concluded the Versailles Pact: in the event of a war between Louis XV and Emperor Charles, King Augustus promised to remain neutral and not let Russian troops through, in response, France provided the king with subsidies. On 15 (26) November, the Russian Minister in Vienna, Ludovik Lanchinsky, met with the President of Hofkriegsrat, Prince Eugene of Savoy. The prince confirmed that the court of Vienna wanted a free election of the king, would support a Piast candidate friendly to Russia and Austria, and would not allow the election of Leszczynski. The next intensification of negotiations took place in 1730, which was associated with the aggravation of the confrontation between the European blocs. In July-August 1730, the Russian court informed Vienna that negotiations were underway with the French in Warsaw and Dresden. On July 11 (22), Lanchinsky reported to St. Petersburg about a meeting with Prince Eugene:.

“When I announced to him that the news about the secret Saxon negotiation with France was continuing, I skillfully took out a handkerchief from my pocket, tied a knot and said briefly:“ I remember de “”

On November 7 (18), 1730, the imperial ambassador, Count Franz-Karl von Vratislav, informed Vice-Chancellor Andrei Osterman of the decree of Emperor Charles on the Polish question. The emperor proposed to conclude an agreement between Prussia, Russia and Austria on the following terms:

On December 14 (25), Vratislav presented a draft treaty that provided for the guarantee of the Polish "republic", the formation of a Prussian-Russian-Austrian council for Polish affairs and the nomination of such a candidate who. On January 2 (13), 1731, Empress Anna Ioannovna approved this project.

"contained all Polish freedoms and would live in peace with all border countries"

In 1730-1731, in the Commonwealth, at the Sejm in Grodno, the issue of liquidating the autonomy of Courland and dividing the duchy into voivodships and districts was considered, which was contrary to international agreements, since many European powers acted as guarantors of the autonomy of the duchy. In 1731, the Polish-Lithuanian raids on the borders and the persecution of the Orthodox intensified. These events prompted Russia to take action. Lieutenant General Count Karl Löwenwolde and Adjutant General of the Empress Count Ernst Biron left for Berlin, who were supposed to coordinate actions on the Polish issue with King Friedrich Wilhelm I. In August 1731 Levenwolde left for Vienna as an envoy extraordinary.

For Emperor Charles VI, 1731 also became a turbulent year. On December 7 (18), 1731, the Reichstag in Regensburg guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, but the electors of Bavaria, the Palatinate and Saxony, who could claim part of the "Austrian inheritance", abstained. The next demarche of August II forced the Vienna court to act decisively. On February 6 (17), 1732, Count Vratislav presented to Empress Anna Ioannovna the emperor's response to the promemoria of Count Levenvolde, the envoy extraordinary in Vienna. The emperor ordered the imperial ambassador in Warsaw, Count Wilczek, together with the Russian envoy, Count Friedrich Levenwolde "all sorts of convenient and strong harassment, where appropriate, to use" to protect Orthodox "dissidents" and the Russian population on the Polish border. In case this is not enough, the emperor is ready to support Russia by force of arms, considering the situation as a case of aggression. On July 13 (24), Emperor Charles arrived incognito in Prague, where he secretly met with King Friedrich Wilhelm in the house of Count Nostitz. The monarchs agreed on joint actions in the election of a new Polish king.

"when one or the other side in the late possession of their lands under the said allied treaty is disturbed"

The Polish question could not leave France aside. Since the signing of the Treaty of Vienna in 1726, France has pursued a policy of "eastern barrier" towards Russia. The purpose of this policy was to create a hostile environment around Russia from Sweden, Turkey and the Commonwealth. France helped Sweden to restore the army and tried to establish allied relations between Turkey, Poland and Sweden, directed against Russia. The objective of the "eastern barrier" policy was to weaken Russia and divert its attention from the problems of Central and Central Europe, which was to ensure Russia's non-interference in Austro-French relations.

The balance of power in Europe was not in favor of King August II, and most of the Polish magnates were opposed to him. The last step of August the Strong was the proposal to divide the Commonwealth between him and Prussia. August offered Friedrich Wilhelm Polish Prussia, Courland and part of Greater Poland, the rest of the lands became a hereditary kingdom. On December 31, 1732 (January 11, 1733) in Krosno, the king met with the Prussian minister von Grumbkow, but the negotiations were interrupted due to the worsening of the king's illness. After 4 days in Warsaw, the king fell ill, on January 18 (29) he developed a fever, and on the morning of January 21 (February 1), 1733, the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland August the Strong died.

The death of the king was a signal to action for the European powers. As the Russian envoy in Vienna, Ludovik Lanchinsky, reported to the Empress Anna:

“After the release of my last report under No. 6, a courier arrived here from the Caesar's ambassador Count Wilczek from Warsaw, and on the third day at the end of the 9th hour in the morning, with a statement about the death of the King of Poland, and that hour His Caesar's Majesty called to him chief ministers, with whom he deigned to speak about that occasion. And yesterday, Prince Eugene had a conference, in which, as I was informed from here, it was planned to send a courier with a dispatch to Berlin on a measure to the court of Your Imperial Majesty and to Berlin in such a strength that all three courts tried to excommunicate Stanislav Leshchinsky from the Polish throne, yes, to make kings for all three powers, for which purpose a certain amount of money is determined here to incline the Polish nobles ”

In the Commonwealth, executive power passed into the hands of the primate, Archbishop of Gniezno, Count Fyodor Potocki. With his first decrees, the primate expelled 1,200 Saxons from the country, disbanded two regiments of the Horse Guards, and accepted August II's favorite regiment, the Grand Musketeer, into Polish service. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw, Count Friedrich Levenwolde, found out in conversations with the primate that he was a firm supporter of Leshchinsky. For Russia, the support of Leshchinsky by the Potocki family did not bode well, since the Potocki controlled the voivodeships bordering Russia. Starosta Warsaw Count Józef Potocki was the voivode of Kiev, Anthony Potocki was the voivode of Belsky. Potocki's relatives were the Russian voivode August Czartoryski, the headman of Chigirinsky Yablonovsky, the treasured grand crown count Franciszek Ossolinsky, the crown regimentary count Stanislav Poniatowski.

The support for Russia and Austria was the Lithuanian nobility, opposed to Leshchinsky - the Lithuanian regimentary Prince Mikhail Vishnevetsky, Prince Mikhail-Kazimir Radziwill. The pro-Austrian voivode Prince Fyodor Lubomirsky of Krakow and the prince of Krakow Jan Vishnevetsky were pro-Austrian. By February 12 (23), 1733, they organized a confederation in Krakow and captured the salt mines, but without receiving military assistance from Austria, the confederates soon submitted to the primate.

In Germany, Eugene of Savoy, with an army of thirty thousand, had difficulty holding the French army. As a result, the emperor, seeing that the hopes for success were not justified, again expressed his desire to enter into peace negotiations. Many Spaniards who were at the Vienna court, fearing that they would lose their estates with the loss of Lombardy, persuaded the emperor to enter into negotiations with Spain, promising Don Carlos the hand of Maria Theresa, but the archduchess opposed this plan, and the weak-willed emperor did not know what make up your mind. Finally, he himself entered into secret negotiations with France.

At this time, in northern Italy, things began to take a favorable turn for him. The siege of Mantua dragged on for a long time, thanks to the quarrels of the allies, who did not want to cede this important point to each other. This mutual distrust and the threats of Charles VI to conclude a separate peace with Spain and Sardinia forced the French to make concessions, and on October 3 a preliminary peace treaty was signed in Vienna.

The conditions remained the same, with the exception of some changes regarding the cession of the lands of Sardinia and the fact that the Duke of Lorraine, in exchange for Tuscany, had to cede Bar and Lorraine to France. Sardinia also agreed to a truce.

Meanwhile, Koenigsek forced the Spaniards to lift the siege of Mantua, pushed them back to Tuscany and prepared to move on Naples. Spain was also forced to stop hostilities.

However, the main peace treaty was not signed for several more years, until Fleury and Walpole persuaded Austria to convince the Duke of Lorraine to cede his possessions to France for 3.5 million livres of annual income and satisfy the desires of the Sardinian king.

On November 8, 1738, peace was signed with France. On February 8, Sardinia joined him, and on April 21, 1739, Spain and Naples. According to this world, Stanislav Leshchinsky renounced the Polish throne, but retained the title of king and lifelong possession of Lorraine, which, after his death, was to go to France. In return for Lorraine, the Duke of Lorraine received Tuscany with the title of Grand Duke; Charles III was recognized as king of the two Sicilies; Parma and Piacenza remained with Austria; the Sardinian king received the western part of Lombardy, and France fully recognized the Pragmatic Sanction.

As a result of the war, the international positions of the Russian government were strengthened and its influence on Poland increased. France, on the other hand, succeeded in weakening Austria.

hung a bag, which is considered the predecessor of a soldier's satchel. Officers and non-commissioned officers wore red uniforms with white cuffs.

War of the Polish Succession. 1733-1735

This war began after the death of Augustus II of Saxony. The occasion was the election of a king to the Polish throne. Russia and Austria supported the Saxon Elector Friedrich August. France nominated Stanislav Leshchinsky. According to the peace treaty concluded in 1738, Augustus became the king of Poland, and Stanislav received the province of Lorraine in control.

57. SAXONY-POLAND. Dress uniform of a cuirassier, officer. 1734

After the unification of Poland and Saxony, the traditions of both states influenced the appearance of military uniforms. Therefore, in some cases it is difficult to separate the details of a military suit according to their origin. One such example is the cuirassier costume, which, according to various sources, is considered either Polish or Saxon. Nevertheless, the uniform of the cuirassier shows a strong Polish influence. The cuirass and helmet with a visor are reminiscent of the equipment of the Polish noble cavalry. The baldric is also worn in the Polish manner - a fringed knot on the right side. On the breastplate of the cuirass there is a shield with the coat of arms of Saxony-Poland.

58. SAXONY-POLAND. Foot guard, piper. 1732

The Polish Guard was one of the few military units in which there were musicians - pipers. frock coats

the guardsmen were red, and the cuffs and camisoles were blue. The colors of the Saxon dynasty were used in the clothes of the bagpipers of the guard. The goat-headed bagpipe exists in some countries of Eastern Europe currently.

59. SAXONY-POLAND. Musketeer Guard, officer. 1735

This guard unit did not participate in military campaigns, but only guarded the royal people and the royal residence. Depending on the rank, the officers wore an elegant uniform with silver embroidered galloons and aiguillettes on the shoulders. The senior officer depicted in the figure has a wide sword belt. The sword was used for its main purpose, despite excessive decoration.

60. RUSSIA. Infantry Regiment, Grenadier.

After the introduction in 1720 in the Russian army of a uniform uniform, all infantry regiments had uniforms with red cuffs and camisoles of the same color. The national feature of the Russian army of that time was also the images on the forehead of the grenadier cap and the metal plaque of the cartridge bag of the coat of arms and the name of the city, whose name the regiment bore. Unlike the Western European-style grenadier cap, the front and rear flaps of the Russian grenadiers were significantly lower than the cap.

War of the Austrian Succession. 1740-1748

The war for the succession to the Austrian throne broke out between Austria, Great Britain, the Netherlands and Russia on the one hand, and Prussia, Bavaria, France, Spain and Sweden on the other. In addition, some German and Italian states participated in it on both sides. After the death of Emperor Charles VI in 1740, his daughter Maria Theresa became the legitimate heir to the Austrian throne. However, the Bavarian elector Karl Albrecht also put forward claims to the throne. The most significant battles of this war were the battles of Molwitz (1741), Dettingen (1743) and Hohenfriedeberg (1745). The war began with the capture of Silesia by Frederick II of Prussia in 1740. In 1742, after Silesia was ceded to Prussia, Prussia and Austria made peace. But in 1744, Prussia again began hostilities. According to the peace treaty of 1748, the warring states recognized the right to the inheritance of the Austrian throne by Maria Theresa, but almost all of Silesia went to Prussia.

61. AUSTRIA. Cuirassier regiment of Emmanuel of Portugal, officer. 1740

By 1740, a uniform military uniform in the Austrian army had not yet been introduced. The commanders of military units had a great influence on the choice of uniform. For example, on saddle pads and ingots, instead of the imperial eagle, the personal coat of arms of the unit commander was often depicted.

Initially, the cuirassiers wore leather jackets, but they were soon replaced with cloth uniforms. Cuffs and camisoles were red, blue or green. However, over time, red became dominant. And then red buttons were made the hallmarks of the uniforms of the regiments.

leg, yellow or white, and then jackets and pantaloons began to be dyed in the corresponding colors. The cuirass consisted only of a breastplate, the lining and straps of which were made of leather. The Austrian, or rather imperial, scarf was woven from colors corresponding to the colors of the imperial coat of arms - yellow and black. With the accession in 1742 to the throne of the German Empire, Karl Albrecht of Bavaria, the color of the scarf was changed to green and gold (or silver). However, in 1745, after the restoration of the House of Habsburg, the scarf was returned to its original colors - black and yellow.

62. AUSTRIA. Hussar regiment "Nadashdi", private. 1743

Beginning in 1526, after the accession of the Hungarian crown to the House of Habsburg, Hungarian soldiers began to serve in the imperial army. The most famous among them were the cavalrymen. This hussar regiment, formed in 1688, is the oldest Hungarian unit in the Austrian army. The soldiers were dressed in national Hungarian costumes. Lacing on dolmans is especially characteristic. The Hungarians did not use loops: dolmans, like all outerwear, were fastened with cords and short sticks that replaced buttons. Motifs of national clothes are also visible in tight-fitting chikchirs, short boots and fur trim. It should be noted that clothes trimmed with astrakhan and thrown over the shoulder became known as "Hungarian", and the hussar jacket - "dolman". Until 1757, the commanders of military units had complete freedom in choosing the colors of the uniform. The creation of hussar units in other armies is based on the legendary dexterity of the Hungarian hussars and the horror that they inflicted on the enemy during the battle. Initially, such military units were replenished with immigrants from Hungary, and later - with the indigenous population.

63. AUSTRIA. Hungarian infantry regiment "Kökenesdi", private. 1742

The regiment was founded in 1734. The Hungarian infantry, like the hussar units, was dressed according to national traditions. The decree of 1735 ordered the foot soldiers to wear "attila" (dolman) of blue color, bright red chikchirs and a black felt hat. But the commanders of military units modified the uniform to their taste. The hairstyle of the Hungarian infantrymen and hussars was unusual: their hair was tied back in a ponytail and two pigtails were braided at the temples. Long, fabricated mustaches hung down or turned up (91, 92).

64. AUSTRIA. Infantry Regiment "Vasquez de Binas", drummer of the grenadier company. 1740

The regiment was formed in 1721 from the inhabitants of Lombardy. Despite all the official orders to wear a gray cloth uniform, almost the entire Austrian army had a white uniform. In some regiments, the clothes were with lapels, the camisoles were fastened with one row of buttons, and in others, as shown in the figure, with two. The grenadier miter is similar to the bear's hat introduced later. From it hangs a coat of regimental colors. Covers on stockings (pagolenki) were converted into gaiters, fastened with buttons from the outside. Black gaiters were worn everyday, while white leggings were worn only in the summer in peacetime and at the parade. In most regiments, the drummers were dressed in a uniform richly decorated with galloons. A decree of 1755 ordered musicians to have only one distinctive sign of their occupation - “wings” in the form of inverted swallow nests on the shoulders of their uniform.

65. PRUSSIA. Infantry Regiment "Prince Moritz Anhalt-Dessau", grenadier. 1741

The regiment was formed in 1713. The Prussian army increased significantly during the reign of Friedrich Wilhelm I,

nicknamed the corporal king. Because of the economy, which often went to the extreme, military clothing was made narrow and short. Lapels have disappeared, but not in all regiments. Jackets were mostly white or light yellow. Camping equipment was supplemented with a leather satchel and a flask. The decoration of the frontal part of the miter was made of metal, through the through holes of which the back was visible. The miter became stiff, the metal decorations were polished to a shine, as were the buttons on the uniform. The officers-grenadiers of the Prussian army wore a cocked hat, like the officers of the grenadier units of other countries, but they had not a gun, but a half-pike.

66. PRUSSIA. Artillery, bombardier.

The uniform of the Prussian artillery was blue, lined in red. The appearance of a special scorer's miter with brass decorations, made of black waxed cloth, dates back to 1731. Cleaning needles (pickers), which were previously kept in sheaths (33), were now tied to a gunpowder container. Gold embroidered lace on the cuff tabs indicated the rank of scorer. According to the general custom, the hair was powdered. Soldiers did this only during military reviews and guard duty in peacetime. Officers were always required to either powder their hair or wear a white wig.

67. FRANCE. Royal Regiment "Comte", Fusiliers. 1740

This military unit, formed in 1674 during the conquest of the province of Franche-Comte, was considered a royal regiment and therefore wore a uniform with blue cuffs. The decree of 1736 finally approved the uniform of the French infantry. Compared to the Prussian uniform, the caftan and camisole became looser. The number of buttons on cuffs and pocket flaps was precisely prescribed. In the campaign, equipment was worn on the back in a knapsack

or linen bag. Thus, unlike the Prussian infantry, it was more convenient for the French infantrymen to move.

68. FRANCE. Regiment "Boffremont", Dragoons.

Since the commander of this cavalry regiment, formed in 1673 in the province of Franche-Comté, was not of royal blood, the uniform of the regiment was red. The colors of headdresses, camisoles and cuffs served as distinctive signs. The aiguillettes were abolished and replaced with fringed epaulettes, which prevented the bandage from slipping with the cartridge bag. Basically, the dragoons wore clothes with the floors turned up. The same custom spread to the infantry.

69. BAVARIA. Guards regiment, grenadier. 1740

The grenadier cap at first had no decorations, but in 1740 it was decorated with a cupronickel plaque. In most armies, the grenadiers enjoyed the privilege of wearing mustaches, while others, following the fashion of the time, had to shave. In some military units this privilege was even interpreted as a duty: if by nature the mustache of a grenadier was not thick enough, then he was obliged to wear false mustaches during the service. For parades, fair-haired grenadiers were forced to dye their mustaches black and twist their ends up.

70. PFALT. Regiment of Carabinieri "Count Hatzfeld", officer. 1748

The army of the Elector of the Palatinate before its annexation to Bavaria in 1777 had the form of the Bavarian model. The cavalry of both armies wore white uniforms with regimental color cuffs. A characteristic feature of the headdress was a blue or white bow. Most

armies, such a cockade was black, but could also have the colors of the heraldry of the ruling house, as shown in the figure.

71. SAXONY. The Queen's Infantry Regiment, Drummer. 1745

In 1734, the white color of the Saxon army uniform was replaced by red. Lapels were abolished in 1742, and therefore the regiments differed only in the color of cuffs and underwear. The unusual arrangement of the buttons appears to be of Polish origin and is present only in the infantry guards and the queen's regiment. In other military units, the buttons on the uniforms were located at regular intervals. The uniform of the drummers was distinguished by yellow galloons and "swallow's nest" winged overlays on the shoulders.

72. SAXONY. Artillery, gunner.

From 1717 to 1914 the Saxon artillery had a green uniform with a red collar and cuffs and leather buttons. In bad weather, artillerymen could button up the lapels of their uniforms. In this case, the waist belt and edged weapons were worn over the frock coat. Artillery lost its guild specificity (13), but handling such weapons still required serious training. In addition to the ability to handle an artillery piece, a well-trained artilleryman had to be able to make pyrotechnic charges in the form of flares both in wartime and in peacetime, for fireworks.

73. RUSSIA. Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, officer) grenadier. 1740

The Preobrazhensky Regiment, formed by Peter the Great in 1690 and received the rank of Guards in 1700, was one of the most famous in the Russian army (399). The uniform of the grenadier officer depicted in the figure was introduced in 1733. The headdress of the usual form is a leather grenadier hat with a forehead and a nape. Since 1720, officers had a white plume. hallmark The uniform of the Preobrazhensky Regiment had a red collar. The espanton (a kind of protazana) was an honorary officer's weapon.

74. SPAIN. Savoy Infantry Regiment, standard bearer. 1748

Since 1710, the Spanish infantry wore light gray caftans, and later white, with cuffs and camisoles of regimental colors. The pants were white and the stockings were red. In 1730 white leggings were introduced. From that moment on, caftans began to be worn unbuttoned and with the floors turned up.

75. SARDINIA. Infantry Regiment, Fusilier.

The Sardinian infantry was dressed in a light gray uniform. The regiments differed in the color of their cuffs and collars, and the camisoles were the same color as the cuffs or light yellow. Grenadiers wore bear hats. The ammunition included a saber and a cartridge bag.

76. NAPLES. General. 1740

The army of the Kingdom of Naples wore a French-style uniform. Uniforms for generals were introduced in many armies in mid-eighteenth in. Prior to this, the generals

73. Russia. Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, officer-grenadier. 1740

74. Spain. Savoy Infantry Regiment, standard bearer. 174875. Sardinia. Infantry Regiment, Fusilier. 174476. Naples. General. 1740

usually wore the uniform of the regiment they commanded. Sometimes their uniforms had some distinguishing marks, such as a plume on a hat. Royal persons up to the middle of the XVIII century. put on a uniform only in the war or during the inspector review. The exception was the Swedish king Charles XII and the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm I: they wore military uniform constantly. The general depicted in the figure was awarded the Order of Constantine.

77. HANOVER. Mounted grenadier. 1742

The squadron of mounted grenadiers, founded in 1742, was part of the Hanoverian Horse Guards. The squadron had red uniforms with black trim. The hallmark of the grenadier uniform was the aiguillette. Since from 1714 English kings were Electors of Hanover, the upper part of the forehead of the grenadier cap was decorated with the coat of arms of Great Britain, and the lower part with the image of a galloping horse, which is a symbol of Lower Saxony. The red cloth cover of the cartridge case is decorated with a copper plaque with a royal monogram.

78. GREAT BRITAIN. 3rd Infantry Regiment, Fusilier. 1742

The cuffs of the uniform are buff, hence the nickname The buffs (bulls), which later became the official name of the regiment. The British uniform was finally approved in the 1740s. Decorative galloons, the wearing of which was considered the exclusive right of the grenadiers, became the insignia of the regiments. By decree of 1743, red uniforms were introduced in the British army, but at first only lapels were red. characteristic feature there were wide leather belts. An awl and a brush for cleaning the gun were attached on two laces to the upper part of the sling that held the cartridge bag.

77. Hanover. Mounted grenadier. 1742 78. Great Britain. 3rd Infantry Regiment, Fusiliers. 174279. Schwarzburg. Infantry Regiment "Von Diepenbräuk", officer. 174080. Netherlands. Guards infantry, sapper. 1750